Contemporary Urban Environments Flashcards
1
Q
What type of city is London?
A
A world city
2
Q
What makes London a world city?
A
It’s global influence in trade due to it being a global financial centre with a growing reputation as a technological hub. It is also an economic powerhouse which attracts FDI.
3
Q
What is a common saying about London’s multicultural population?
A
‘The world under one roof’
4
Q
What was the impact on London of the arrival of the Empire Windrush ship in 1948?
A
The Boat was carrying many West Indian men seeking work. This is said to be the start of London’s multicultural population.
5
Q
London has the largest ________ gap in the UK which continues to widen.
A
Wealth
6
Q
In 1956, which act was put in place to reduce CO2 emissions?
A
Clean air act
7
Q
London currently breaches the EU legal limit on what?
A
NO2 levels
8
Q
London is 10 degrees warmer than the surrounding areas. What is the name of this effect?
A
Urban heat island effect
9
Q
State one positive and one negative effect of the river Thames running through London.
A
Easier trade in the past as it allowed London to develop as a port city. Increased risk of flooding as much of London is on the floodplain.
10
Q
State three environmental developments in London.
A
Congestion charge, green transport and Boris bikes.
11
Q
State an urban renewal scheme that occurred in east London around 2012.
A
Renewal of the Olympic park.
12
Q
What is the population of Mumbai?
A
Over 20 million.
13
Q
What happened to Mumbai’s population since 1991?
A
It nearly doubled.
14
Q
Why did Mumbai’s population increase?
A
Due to an influx of migrants from across India seeking better employment opportunities.
15
Q
What is urban resurgence?
A
An influx of people to a city centre due to an area being developed following a period of decline.
16
Q
What is the doughnut effect?
A
Also known as the dead heart of the city, the doughnut effect is where people and industry all move out of the city centre to outer suburban areas or elsewhere seeking better opportunities and leaving the city centre derelict.
17
Q
State six examples of things that governments can do to support urban resurgence.
A
Pedestrianisation, improving CBD shopping centres, spending money on the public realm, giving grants to retailers, investing in gentrification and large scale clearance and rebuilding of areas.
18
Q
What does UDC stand for?
A
Urban Development Corporation
19
Q
What were UDCs given power to do in order to regenerate the London Docklands in 1981?
A
Compulsory purchase properties or land even if the owners did not want to sell.
20
Q
What did UDCs tend to do with industrial sites in order to regenerate the London Docklands?
A
Acquire the land, clear it and clean it up.
21
Q
What were UDCs heavily criticised for when they were regenerating the London Docklands?
A
Their lack of consultation with and consideration of local people and their needs.
22
Q
What is urbanisation?
A
The growth of the proportion of people living in urban areas.
23
Q
What is suburbanisation?
A
The migration of people from city centres to the outskirts of cities.
24
Q
What is counter-urbanisation?
A
The movement of people out of the city into surrounding villages and rural areas.
25
What have urbanisation and population growth lead to the emergence of?
Megacities.
26
What is a world city?
A city that has political and financial influence over the whole world.
27
What are world cities generally home to?
World-renowned universities, Banking company headquarters and transport links.
28
Give three economic factors associated with urbanisation.
More job opportunities, better paid jobs, commercial farming overtakes subsistence farming so agricultural jobs decline which drives more people into the city.
29
Give two social factors associated with urbanisation.
Higher living standards and more cultural expression and inclusion.
30
What can urban growth lead to economically?
Economic inequality and the emergence of the ‘working class’.
31
What is the demographic usually like in urban areas?
Wealthier cities attract migrants from all over the world so they are more culturally diverse and young people are attracted by jobs and entertainment such as bars and clubs and they tend to raise families in the city.
32
Why does deindustrialisation occur?
The manufacturing industry in developed countries can’t compete with the low labour costs in developing countries and are forced out of business.
33
What is decentralisation?
When businesses from the CBD move out to the suburbs due to increasing land prices. This leads to buildings being abandoned, job losses and poverty.
34
What is an enterprise zone?
Established in 1981, enterprise zones were created in areas of high unemployment. These areas had reduced tax on corporations and land which encouraged start-up companies to set up there and create jobs. This also encouraged existing companies to move there though which limited the number of jobs created.
35
What was the city challenge?
From 1991-1997, local authorities competed for government funding to regenerate deprived urban areas.
36
What are partnership schemes?
Established in 2010, the government has worked with private companies to provide financial support and expertise for urban regeneration.
37
State four physical factors which affect urban form.
Topography, water, natural resources, land type (e.g. swamps and wetlands can limit urban growth).
38
State three human factors which affect urban growth.
Amount of planning, infrastructure, land value.
39
What is an edge city?
Areas of offices, shops and leisure facilities that develop close to major transport links. Land is cheaper here and they contain some housing but most people travel to them for work or to use the services available.
40
State five factors of a post-modern city.
Multiple centres with different purposes, a focus on tertiary and quaternary industry, less uniform architecture, planning prioritises aesthetics over practical use, higher social and economic inequality.
41
State two things the São Paulo government has done to tackle inequality.
In 2016, the minimum wage was raised by 12% and in 2001, the government passed a law which allowed favelas to be recognised as legitimate residential areas which lead to investment in sanitation, road building and housing improvements.
42
State the four main causes of the urban heat island effect.
Absorption of heat by urban surfaces, air pollution, human activity (cars, factories, offices, central heating, air conditioning units and people themselves all release heat), less evapotranspiration (water drains away quickly so little evaporation and little vegetation so little transpiration).
43
At what time of day is the urban heat island effect the strongest and why?
At night because the surrounding rural areas cool more at night but the city won’t cool as much due to the urban surfaces continuing to release heat; the heat storage capacity of building materials is much higher than vegetation.
44
What is the canyon effect?
When wind is channelled down streets by large buildings surrounding them.
45
Is the average wind speed higher or lower in urban areas and why?
Lower due to friction from the buildings.
46
Why is there more rain, fog and thunderstorms in urban areas?
Warm air rises then cools and condenses into rain, this is called convectional uplift. Dust and pollution in the air cause water to condense around them and form more clouds and rain.
47
State four sources of particulate pollution in urban areas.
Vehicle exhausts, burning of refuse and cigarettes and coal, construction and mining and quarrying, plants and moulds.
48
What is photochemical smog?
Smog created when sunlight reacts with pollutants in the air.
49
Where is photochemical smog more common and why?
In cities with hot and sunny climates because there’s more sunlight.
50
State six methods of reducing air pollution in urban areas.
Congestion charging, pedestrianisation, public transport improvements, legislation (laws), alternative fuels, other schemes for reducing traffic such as in Mexico city drivers are banned from using their cars one weekday per week based on the last digit of their number plate.
51
What are the three primary sources of waste in urban areas?
Industrial waste, commercial waste and personal waste.
52
State three economic characteristics of urban waste.
Developed countries produce more waste than developing countries, The components of waste are different (developed countries mainly produce paper whereas developing countries mainly produce organic material), Waste streams vary but aren’t linked to wealth (recycling varies and people in developing countries sometimes collect recyclable goods from landfill and sell them for a living).
53
State three lifestyle factors which affect urban waste.
Where you live (urban dwellers create more waste than rural residents), people are more likely to recycle if the facilities are easily accessible, diet will also affect waste as processed foods create waste and tend to come in more packaging whereas fruit and vegetables create compostable waste and come in less packaging.
54
State four ways in which attitudes affect urban waste.
Many countries have a throw-away culture which creates a lot more waste, increasing concerns about health increases food waste because it may be just past its sell-by date, people more concerned about the environment are more likely to recycle, some people such as freegans want to decrease the consumption and waste to forage for food in supermarket bins or repair broken goods and give away things they don’t need.
55
State seven ways which waste can be disposed.
Unregulated (dumped illegally), recycling, incineration, recovery, burial (landfill), submergence (dumping in the ocean), trade.
56
What has Singapore done to reduce its urban waste?
Switched from landfill to incineration due to lack of land space because Singapore is an island.
57
Other than incineration, what does Singapore have to reduce waste?
A single landfill site, Semakau, which is a small island lined with an impermeable membrane and a layer of clay to prevent leaching of chemicals. Once it is full, it is covered in topsoil to support vegetation and the area is now home to rare species.
58
What percentage of Singapore’s waste goes to landfill, gets incinerated and is recycled?
2% to landfill, 38% is incinerated and 60% is recycled.
59
State two drawbacks of incinerators.
They produce harmful emissions and only last around ten years before needing to be replaced.
60
Where are land values the highest in a city?
The city centre and the CBD.
61
Where are land values the lowest in a city?
In the suburbs around the outer edge of the city.
62
Which area of a city is most accessible in a city and why?
The city centre and CBD because there is a high concentration of transport links such as road, rail and communications.
63
What allows change to take place quickly and on a large scale?
Companies investing in an area.
64
What encourages companies to invest in an area?
High concentration of transport links and communications.
65
What is town centre mixed development?
Any urban development that blends residential, commercial, cultural, institutional or entertainment uses where those functions are physically and functionally integrated and that provides pedestrian connections.
66
State six things which may be included in a town centre mixed development.
Flagship attractions, leisure facilities, investment in the public realm, accessible public space, residential areas and cultural events.
67
What is the name for a city having separate climatic conditions from the surrounding area?
Microclimate.
68
State seven climatic factors are different from the surrounding areas in a microclimate.
Temperature, precipitation, relative humidity, visibility, wind speed, radiation and pollution.
69
How does the air temperature in an urban area vary from the surface temperature during the day?
The air temperature is much lower than the surface temperature.
70
How does the air temperature in an urban area vary from the surface temperature during the night?
They are roughly the same.
71
Where are the surface temperature peaks in urban areas?
In the CBD and in suburban areas.
72
Where does the surface temperature remain similar across night and day in urban areas?
Over areas of water; the surface temperature is much lower than the surrounding areas during the day but slightly higher than surrounding areas during the night due to water’s high heat capacity.
73
State four reasons why cities tend to be warmer than rural areas.
Surfaces in cities tend to be less reflective so have a lower albedo so absorb much more heat, there is much more air pollution due to industries and vehicles, water is disposed of much faster in urban areas so there is reduced evapotranspiration which means more energy is available to heat the atmosphere, more fuel is being burned and air conditioning units release warm air into the atmosphere.
74
State ten reasons why the urban heat island effect is a matter of concern.
Conditions become uncomfortable in buildings and on public transport.
If the effect is extreme, cases of heat stroke, asthma, organ damage and even death increase.
Increased air pollution due to chemical reactions which produce ozone and smog being accelerated.
There is an increased strain on the supply if energy for cooling and air conditioning.
There is an increased strain on water supply as people will be drinking more.
Plants will take up water from the soil faster.
Plants will flower earlier and for longer which will cause discomfort for residents with allergies to this.
Some animals and pests will live longer and reproduce more which might lead to algal blooms in water courses.
Increased chemical weathering so historical monuments and buildings will deteriorate faster.
Climate change is expected to increase the intensity of the UHI effect.
75
State five methods of reducing the urban heat island effect.
Cool surfaces, green roofs, urban greening, sky view factor and cool cars.
76
What are cool surfaces?
Roofs built from materials with a high albedo so they absorb and store less energy during the day thus emitting less in the night.
77
What are green roofs and what do they do?
When plants are grown on the roofs of buildings to reduce the roof temperature by 20-40 degrees on a sunny day and to reduce rainwater run-off. They also act as insulators and increase urban biodiversity by providing habitat space for birds and small animals.
78
What is urban greening and what does it do?
Planting trees and vegetation to provide shade which can reduce surface temperatures by 5-20 degrees. Trees also act as carbon stores, can reduce flooding by intercepting rainfall and can filter pollutants from the air.
79
What is sky view factor?
The relative openness between buildings. A restricted sky view, as found for narrow streets and tall buildings, will reduce the escape of heat from street and building surfaces. This can increase the temperature within ‘street canyons’. If streets are angled perpendicularly to the prevailing wind, there will be reduced chances of ventilation and removal of heat and pollutants that accumulate between buildings.
80
What are cool cars and what do they do?
Cars with lighter coloured shells to reflect more sunlight than darker shells. This reduces the temperature inside the car and reduces the need for air conditioning.
81
Why is there more rainfall in urban areas experiencing the urban heat island effect?
Higher temperatures encourage the development of lower pressure in the city in relation to the surrounding area.
82
In what type of air do thunderstorms develop best in?
Hot and humid air.
83
How are thunderstorms produced?
By convectional uplift under conditions of extreme instability. Cumulonimbus clouds may develop up to the height of the tropopause, where the inversion produces stability. The up-draught of air through the central area of the towering cloud causes rapid cooling and condensation.
84
Why does lightning occur?
As raindrops are split in the up-draught, positive electrical charge builds up in the cloud. When the charge is high enough to overcome the resistance in the cloud, or in the atmosphere, a discharge occurs to areas of negative charge in the cloud or to Earth in the form of lightning.
85
What are anthropogenic factors?
Human factors.
86
How much waste did the Netherlands landfill before their landfill reduction schemes in 1995?
Around 60 million tonnes of waste annually.
87
How much waste is landfilled in the Netherlands now after the landfill reduction schemes?
1.5 - 2 million tonnes.
88
When did the Netherlands introduce landfill bans?
1995
89
When did the Netherlands introduce landfill tax?
1996
90
How did landfill tax in the Netherlands change between 1996 and 2012?
It gradually increased over time then was abolished in 2012.
91
Name a case study for urban waste management.
AEB in Amsterdam
92
What is the purpose of AEB?
To recover as much energy and materials as possible from municipal waste while protecting the environment.
93
Where does a lot of the waste going into AEB come from?
England
94
How do locals benefit from AEB?
Heat is generated by the incinerators for their homes and running water and energy is generated from the waste.
95
How many trucks arrive full of waste every day at AEB?
600
96
How much energy does AEB produce and how many homes can it provide enough energy for?
1,000,000MWh, enough energy for 320,000 homes in Amsterdam.
97
What can be recovered from incinerated ash at AEB?
Valuable materials such as aluminium and zinc.
98
Who did AEB partner with to generate more heat and energy from sewage sludge?
Waternet
99
Why is AEB significant?
It is the largest waste-to-energy plant in one location in the world.
100
How much heat is generated by AEB?
Up to 600,000 GigaJoules.
101
How efficient is AEB?
The most efficient waste-to-energy plant in the world at over 30% efficiency.
102
How much of the waste entering AEB is converted into sustainable energy and useful materials?
99%
103
What is the end goal of AEB?
To achieve a circular economy which is where there is no waste; all of it is reused and recycled.
