Consultation

Question 1

Parties involved in consultation

Answer 1

the consultant, the consultee, the client

Question 2

Dougherty’s definition of consultation

(Page 415).

Answer 2

”. . . a process in which a human services professional assists a consultee with a work-related (or care-taking related) problem with a client system, with the goal of helping both the consultee and the client system in some specified way” (p. 9).

(Page 415).

Question 3

peer consultation

(Page 415).

Answer 3

consulting with an individual

(Page 415).

Question 4

organizational consultation

(Page 415).

Answer 4

consulting with organizations such as businesses, agencies, or schools

(Page 415).

Question 5

Content-oriented consultation

(Page 416).

Answer 5

focuses on the transfer of knowledge or information from the consultant to the consultee. The consultant is considered an expert and assumes the role of problem-solver.

(Page 416).

Question 6

Process-oriented consultation

(Page 416).

Answer 6

focuses on how and why problems are occurring. The consultant is more of a facilitator who may use communication, attribution, change, or motivational theories to help the consultee or organization make changes.

(Page 416).

Question 7

Caplan’s Model of Consultation

(Page 416).

Answer 7

A. Mental Health Consultation Model
1. Gerald Caplan’s (1970) mental health consultation model, based on a psychodynamic perspective, is the prototype for most counseling consultation models used today.
2. Caplan proposed that professionals need consultation when there is a deficit in:
skills
self-confidence
knowledge
objectivity
3. The loss of objectivity, the most frequent reason for a request for consultation, is attributed to the consultee identifying with the client’s problem or to a psychological impairment of the consultee.
4. Such loss of objectivity is described as “theme interference” (Caplan, 1970; Caplan and Caplan, 1999).

B. Four Consultation Relationships
The focus of consultation can be (Caplan, 1970; Caplan and Caplan, 1999):
1. Client-centered consultation involves the consultee seeking assistance from a consultant about a client.
2. Consultee-centered consultation concentrates on the consultee’s overall professional deficits.
3. Program-centered consultation involves a consultant helping with an organizational problem.
4. Consultee-centered administrative consultation focuses on improving the consultant’s administrative problem-solving skills or other broad areas of skill deficits or emotional entanglements with a specific issue.

(Page 416).

Question 8

Schein’s Model of Consultation

(Page 417).

Answer 8

A. Edgar Schein’s (1969) model is a process model that emphasizes group-dynamics and communication processes within organizations.

B. Process consultation is also known as organizational development.

C. Schein (1969) recommended the following seven interacting and overlapping steps to process consultation:

1. initial contact with the client organization
2. definition of the consultation relationship, including both the formal and psychological contracts
3. selection and setting of a method of work
4. data gathering and diagnosis
5. intervention
6. involvement reduction
7. termination

D. Process consultants are usually not experts in the field of their consultees. Rather, they provide expertise in interpersonal process (e.g., communication) within an organization.

E. Process models of consultation are sometimes called “purchase” or “purchase of expertise” models (Austin, 1999; Schein, 1978).

(Page 417).

Question 9

Behavioral Model of Consultation

(Page 417).

Answer 9

A. This model is a problem-solving model based on social-learning theory.

B. It employs the use of traditional behavior modification techniques (e.g., shaping, chaining, modeling, etc.) and is particularly well-suited for such controlled environments as:

1. schools
2. prisons
3. hospitals

C. The model may use the following general steps:

1. identify target behavior
2. isolate environmental variables supporting target behavior
3. develop a plan to change environmental conditions
4. implement plan
5. evaluate

(Page 417).

Question 10

Training Model of Consultation

(Page 417).

Answer 10

A. The training model of consultation is usually in the form of workshops in which educational methods are used to impart information and to develop skills.

B. These workshops may take the form of retreats or “in-service” opportunities, have clearly defined purposes, and are usually preventative in nature (Vacc & Loesch, 2000).

C. If problem areas are not identified before the consultant is called upon, the consultant typically surveys the group to determine concerns, and he/she designs the workshop based on responses.

D. The workshop itself is usually conducted utilizing a variety of experiential techniques.

(Page 417).

Question 11

Systems Models

(Page 418).

Answer 11

• Systems Models focus on the complex interactions and interconnectedness of elements of human organizations; organizations create the very environment in which, and to which, they respond (Fuqua & Kurpius, 1993).
• Systems theory may be the most often applied framework for consultation (Ridley & Mendoza, 1993).

(Page 418).

Question 12

Kurpius, Fuqua, and Rozecki’s (1993) Model

(Page 418).

Answer 12

This model emphasizes behavioral or structural change through careful analysis of the problem and synthesis of alternatives.

(Page 418).

Question 13

Atheoretical Problem-Solving Consultation

(Page 418).

Answer 13

1. This model emphasizes an atheoretical approach that relies heavily on facilitative communication skills and systematic problem-solving.
2. This approach suggests four steps (Vacc & Loesch, 2000):
   a. Identify the problem
   b. Clarify the consultee’s situation (what has been done so far, feelings, expectations, attitudes, etc.)
   c. Identify the goals and desired outcomes
   d. Develop a plan
3. The traditional approach to consultation has focused on problem-solving or remediation of the person or organization.
4. Recent emphasis has been on the growing impact of strategic planning concepts and models (Kurpius & Fuqua, 1993).
   a. The strategic planning approach focuses on developing a futuristic “vision” to guide organizational development.
   b. The developmental potential of the organization and prevention are emphasized rather than solving internal problems, though strategic planning may address problem issues as well.
   - Contextual and situational factors, such as the openness or closedness of a system and its readiness for change, should determine which type of model is used (Kurpius & Fuqua, 1993; Kurpius, Fuqua, Rozecki, 1993).

(Page 418).

Question 14

Important issues in establishing the consultation relationship

Answer 14

1. Work-related Focus
   - Consultation should focus on work-related issues rather than personal issues of the consultee, though this is often a difficult line to draw.
2. Dual Relationships
   - The two most common dual roles that may occur in consultation are combining consultation with supervision or combining consultation with counseling. - The consultee should be referred for assistance when counseling is needed.
3. Freedom of Choice
   - Consultation is essentially a peer relationship, while supervision assumes a hierarchy that creates a power differential and includes the need to evaluate.
   - Freedom of choice is related to the peer relationship of consultation because the consultee is encouraged to be self-determined by choosing to do whatever he/she wishes with the consultant’s recommendations.

(Page 419).

Question 15

Consultant Contracts

(Page 420).

Answer 15

A. Many problems can be avoided by establishing a clear, written contractual agreement between the consultant and the consultee that clarifies the type of relationship that will be established.
B. The following are recommendations for consultant contracts (Remley & Herlihy, 2001; Remley, 1993):
- Clearly specify the work required
- Describe in detail any work products expected
- Establish a time frame
- Describe the compensation plan and method of payment
- Specify any special agreements or contingency plans

(Page 420).

Question 16

Internal consultation

(Page 420).

Answer 16

In larger organizations, a consultant may be a full-time employee of the organization (internal consultant).

• Internal consultants often have a personal investment in presenting the problems.
• Internal consultants remain involved in the system after consultation is completed.
• Internal consultants have an established image in the organization that may or may not be helpful.
• In addition, internal consultants usually have extensive information about the organization that external consultants do not have.

(Page 420).

Question 17

External consultation

(Page 420).

Answer 17

an external consultant is hired from outside of the organization (external consultant).
External consultants are usually more easily seen as experts and require a greater financial commitment from the consultee.

(Page 420).

Question 18

Diagnosing
(Consulting)

(Page 421).

Answer 18

A. Diagnosis, a key process in organizational development, is an intervention designed to:

1. Develop information about the subsystems, processes, and patterns of behavior within an organization
2. Mobilize energy for change (Beer & Spector, 1993)

B. A number of diagnostic approaches and techniques are addressed in the literature. Most emphasize three activities: (Beer & Spector, 1993).

1. Data collection can be in the form of survey instruments, questionnaires, and interviews that measure such areas as job satisfaction, job perception, leadership, and group functioning (Beer & Spector, 1993; Cooper & O’Connor, 1993).
2. The discovery process involves presenting the data collected to the group empowered to take action (i.e. administration) for analysis and strategic planning.
3. Feedback involving the results of the discovery process and plan for action is sought from the rest of the organizational members (Beer & Spector, 1993).

(Page 421).

Question 19

Evaluating Outcomes
(Consulting)

(Page 421).

Answer 19

A. Evaluation should help the consultant determine whether the desired result was achieved.

B. While evaluation is typically identified as a distinct stage, usually toward the end of consultation, evaluation should be integrated with the consultation process (Kurpius, et al. 1993).

C. Methods and measures of evaluation should be determined during the process of establishing goals, evaluating interventions and progress, and termination criteria (Kurpius, et al. 1993).

D. Because the nature of consultation is triadic and systemic, evaluation should occur at the individual, dyadic, and systemic levels (Dixon & Dixon, 1993).

E. An ethical issue, related to evaluation, is the responsibility of the consultant to ensure that the services he/she provides are effective (Newman, 1993).

(Page 421).

Question 20

Legal contracts in consultation

Answer 20

a. An offer is a proposal to enter into an agreement.
b. Acceptance occurs when the person to whom the offer is made agrees to the offer.
c. Consideration occurs when something of value (usually money, but it could be intangible items of value as well) is given by the person making the offer to the one who receives the offer.

(Page 425).

Question 21

Guidelines for written contracts

Answer 21

• All pages should be numbered.
• Names should be legibly printed and signed.
• The date of the signatures should be included.
• Any changes should be initialed by both parties.
• Two copies of the document should be signed so that each party can keep an original (Remley, 1993).

(Page 426).