Consultation

Question 1

collaborative consultation

Answer 1

Collaborative consultation is a process in which a trained, school-based consultant, working in an egalitarian, nonhierarchical relationship with a consultee, assists that person in her efforts to make decisions and carry out plans that will be in the best educational interests of her students. Collaborative consultation is an interactive process that enables groups of people with diverse expertise to generate creative solutions to mutually defined problems. The outcome is enhanced and altered from original solutions that group members tend to produce independently. Collaboration refers to a very specific kind of consultation, one characterized by “a recip- rocal arrangement between individuals with diverse expertise to define problems and developsolutions mutually Consultees are more engaged when they are given more responsibility/input in the planning process. expertise and mutual assistance are the two major components of a consultation model that has come to be known as collaborative (Friend & Cook, 2009; Idol, 1 990; Idol, Nevin, & Paolucci-Whitcomb, 2000). Role of expert shifts among participants

Question 2

ACCEPT

Answer 2

A Acknowledging the consultee’s predominant role in carrying out the planned interventions, usually in his classroom (or home), in the context of that setting, and in his style. C Commenting positively on the efforts the consultee has made to date in trying to solve the problem, and the effort he is expending now on behalf of the student. C Convincing the consultee that he has good ideas to offer, and that you, the consultant, would like to hear them. E Expecting that the consultee will take the lead in the development of ideas if encouraged to do so, and expecting that the consultee will give equal weight to the consultant’s ideas. P Pointing out possibilities for effective interventions based on the consultee’s ideas. This involves taking his ideas and helping him think through the pros and cons of these ideas and the details of implementation. In this way, you provide your content expertise in the context of his ideas. When collaborative con- sultation is working well, the consultant’s role is that of facilitatorof the consultee’s ideas. T Treating him as an equal. One of the hallmarks of a collaborative model is that it brings adults together in an atmosphere of mutual respect. Both are equally expert, both need help from the other, and both give ideas and contribute to the final solutions.

Question 3

Criteria for intervention

Answer 3

Treatment Acceptability, Treatment Validity, Treatment ethics, Treatment Integrity, Treatment effectiveness

Question 4

Consultant

Answer 4

i. To empower consultee to carry-out their ideas on how to best meet individual student’s needs. ii. Become an expert in process and content iii. Let the power rest with the consultee iv. Should consultants exert power 1. Yes, depends on what kind. f. BEING A CONSULTANT IS NOT… i. Taking over the intervention ii. Being responsible for intervention’s implementation iii. Being a counselor to the consultee iv. Handling over entire responsibility to the consultee v. Expert of the process The consultant’s job is to facilitate the thinking of these “primary care providers” (i.e., parents and teachers serving as consultees) so these individuals can feel empowered to carry out their ideas about how to best assist the student, under the guidance and encouragement of the consultant.

Question 5

Consultee

Answer 5

d. Role of consultee i. Holder of power ii. Responsible for carrying out the intervention or primary care provider iii. Provide initial data about student iv. Consulteees are much more likely to engage in the consultation process if they have at min., an equal amount of input regarding what should be done to ameliorate or decrease the problem.

Question 6

Process and content expertise

Answer 6

We take the position that expertness should be expected in the area of process and that it is highly desirable but not sufficient in the area of content. By process, we mean the interactions that occur between the consultant and the consultees through which a behavior or a learning problem is approached and solved; it is concerned with how one acts as a consultant. Content refers to the actual ideas that the consultees will implement, such as a contract method, cooperative learning, phonemic awareness instruction, or a token economy; it represents what people will do as a result of consultation. Collaborative consultation requires expertise in process; without such expertise, the process disintegrates, resistance increases, and consultees become dissatisfied with the consultative approach for dealing with their needs as teachers. The content consultants are expected to provide includes knowledge of empirically supported intervention techniques. However, the consultee determines what is practical to apply given the context of the referral

Question 7

Response to Intervention (RTI) - Three levels of intervention

Answer 7

a multitiered approach to ameliorating behavioral or achievement difficulties Primary/Universal, Secondary/Selective, and Tertiary/Indicated. Primary or universal prevention involves taking action to ensure that students are unlikely to develop learning or behavioral difficulties. Standards, appropriate curriculum and teaching methods, and prevention strategies as common as classroom rules are all part of universal prevention. Secondary or selective prevention involves actions taken when a student appears to be having difficulties adapting to behavioral or academic expectations. Small homogeneous grouping, parent conferences, in-class modifications, social skills training, and other mild forms of intervention are common during this stage. Selective interventions should involve some type of supplemental instruction to directly teach and provide additional practice on the skills the student failed todevelop in the primary/universal stage (Gersten et al., 2008) The referral problems are more serious at the tertiary or indicated level; major steps need to be taken (e.g., remediation, reading recovery, special education services, alternative education). Those concerned with the student’s welfare need to consult with each other and collaboratively develop plans that are in the best educational interest of the student. Typically this collaboration occurs with a schoolwide team, such as the student study team (SST) or an individualized education program (IEP) team, which develops individualized, daily, and closely monitored interventions. Wraparound services (Eber, Nelson, & Miles, 1997) that involve out-of-school agencies such as community mental health, respite services, and social services are also examples of collaborative efforts at the tertiary level.

Question 8

No child left behind (NCLB)

Answer 8

No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act, a far-reaching piece of federal legislation. It is essentially a reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1 965. Its requirements include annual testing in reading and math of all stu- dents in grades 3 through 8, as well as the provision of additional funds to support schools that are consistently underachieving. It has particular relevance for students with disabilities because it requires that these students participate in the “high-stakes” testing that is required by this act and that school and district administrators be just as responsible for the performance of students with disabilities as they are for students without disabilities. NCLB is an attempt to close the gap between the actual and expected level of student performance, particularly among the lowest achieving students (Bolt & Roach, 2009), such as students with disabilities, English language learners, and students from economically impoverished families.

Question 9

IDEA

Answer 9

In 2004, the U.S. Congress passed the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA) to replace previous laws governing the provision of special education services. Laws governing special education services and funding have existed since the passage of P.L. 94-1 42 in 1 975. These laws guarantee the rights of students with disabilities to receive a free and appropriate public education (FAPE) in the least restrictive environment (LRE) and the rights of their parents to due process if they believe their child’s access to FAPE is limited by school personnel. The IDEAs also describe the eligibility criteria for determining whether spe- cial education services are needed and provide safeguards to ensure a student’s misconduct does not result in disciplinary actions that impinge upon their FAPE. The 2004 IDEA differed from previous reauthorizations in its alignment to NCLB. For example, like NCLB, IDEA 2004 emphasizes student outcomes, including performance on large-scale assessments as well as better assessment of students’ present level of performance. Authorized: Early Intervention- IDEA 2004 promotes servicing students at risk for academic or behavioral disabilities before they are identified as disabled. Specifically, schools can apply a portion of their federal special education funding to provide EBIs to students who need extra academic and behavioral supports to succeed in the general education environment (Sec. 613(f)) SLD and RTI- DEA 2004 redefined eval- uation for a specific learning disability to be based on the outcome of EBIs rather than a discrepancy between a child’s intelligence and achievement. In fact, state departments of educations can no longer require school systems to find a severe discrepancy between achievement and intellectual ability in order to qualify a student for special education due to a learning disability. Further, the law and regulations encourage “a process that deter- mines if the child responds to scientific, research-based interventions” (Sec. 61 4(b)). In addition, a child who has had a lack of appropriate instruction, including scientifically supported methods for teaching reading, cannot be identified as a child with a disability The emphasis on universal (sound instruction), selective (evidence-based intervention in the form of supplemental instruction), and indicated (intense remedial or special education services) interventions is a major element of the service delivery model known as response to intervention (RtI), which is associated with the IDEA 2004 learning-disability eligibil- ity requirements and is described in greater detail in the next section.

Question 10

Inclusion and Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)

Answer 10

Special education services can be provided in a continuum of settings ranging from general education (least restrictive) to pull-out resource support, to most of the day or the full day in a special education classroom, to a special education school with a student population comprising exclusively students with disabilities (most restrictive) In Daniel R. R. v. State Board of Education (1989), the court indicated a two-part test for determining compliance with the requirement for placement in a least restrictive environment (LRE) First, we ask whether education in the regular classroom, with the use of sup- plementary aids and services, can be achieved satisfactorily for a given child. If it cannot and the school intends to provide special education or to remove the child from regular education, we ask, second, whether the school has main- streamed the child to the maximum extent appropriate.

Question 11

Inclusion

Answer 11

The term mainstream has been replaced by inclusion, reflecting an increased emphasis on providing accommodations and modifications in the general education program so that an even wider range of students with disabilities may experience success (Fuchs & Fuchs, 1 994; Heward, 2000; Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2000; Serge, 2009)

Question 12

Due process

Answer 12

Under IDEA, parents have the right to an impartial due process hearing to determine whether their child is receiving FAPE and whether compensatory education is warranted if FAPE has been compromised (Sec. 615(f)).District personnel can invite parents to engage in mediation prior to a due process hearing in an attempt to prevent a potentially expensive and acrimonious event. Collaborative consultation with parents when disagreements emerge, rather than after a complaint has been filed, may be an even more effective method than mediation for avoiding due process hearings

Question 13

Positive behavior support (PBS)

Answer 13

positive behav- ioral support plan (i.e., an indicated intervention) if a student’s behavioral disability is interfering with her ability to access the curriculum and instruction

Question 14

Functional Behavior Assessment (FBA)

Answer 14

When a student with an identified disability exhibits a behavior that interferes with his/her access to the general education curriculum, THIS must be conducted and the results used to ensure the student’s academic and behavioral success in school.

Process in which the funcJon of behavior and sedngs that trigger and maintain the behavior are idenJfied

Question 15

Manifest Determination

Answer 15

Specifically, if a special education student violates a school rule his IEP team must determine whether the violation was a result of his disability and whether appropri- ate behavioral supports were in place prior to the infraction.

Question 16

Transition planning

Answer 16

Because stu- dents with disabilities have not had the success that students without disabilities enjoy in adulthood (National Organization on Disability, 2004), IDEA requires school personnel to collaborate with students, their parents, and adult services agencies to produce a plan and provide services to improve students’ postsecondary outcomes

Question 17

Response to Intervention (RTI)

Answer 17

The term responsiveness to intervention was first proposed by Frank Gresham (2001 ), who suggested providing increasingly more intense interventions and monitoring to students who remained below grade level expectations despite receiving scientifically based interventions. Tier 1 - Tier 1 constitutes good general education instruction, including high levels of academic engagement, positive classroom management, and differentiated instruction. Assessment at Tier 1 should involve universal screening of all students three or more times a year. Students who fail to attain grade-level benchmarks on the screening receive a predetermined intervention, such as small-group instruction on letter sounds, based on their performance on the screening. This is known as a standard protocol to assessment and intervention (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2006), and it is designed to capture students who are falling behind early before deficits become entrenched and difficult to remediate. Tier 2 - A student who progresses to Tier 2 (selective intervention) should receive a different, more intense intervention compared to Tier 1 , not just more of the same. Fuchs and Fuchs (2006) described increasing the intensity of an intervention as involving one or more of the following (a) more teacher-centered, explicit, and systematic instruction, (b) for longer dura- tions, (c) more frequently, (d) in smaller or more homogeneous groups, and (e) provided by personnel with more training or expertise. Along with a more intense intervention, assess- ment becomes more frequent and targeted at Tier 2. . Students’ progress toward intervention goals should be monitored on a weekly basis, or once a month at a minimum, in order to make midcourse corrections to interventions that are not producing the desired results. Tier 3 - Tier 3 (indicated intervention) can involve increased individual or small-group instructional time, extended-day school, summer school, or special, alternative, or non-public-education serv-ices. In the case of special education, data gathered from the other tiers on rate of progress and intervention responsiveness can be used to guide development of the individualized edu- cation program.

Question 18

Concerns with fidelity

Answer 18

Currently, there is adearth of research on assessing fidelity, due to myriad of issues such as (a) some consultation behaviors may work better in some situations than others, (b) fidelity may be a function of the match between the intervention plan and the referral concern, (c) there is a dearth of intervention fidelity instruments that are sensitive to change and demonstrate adequate reliability and validity, and (d) it is not feasible to monitor the fidelity of some types of interventions (Sheridan, Swanger-Gangné, Welch, Kwon, & Garbacz, 2009)

Question 19

Roadblocks to collaborative consulation

Answer 19

Habit strength - don’t want to give up what you’re used to Restructuring role of school personal (systemic changes) - asking general ed teachers to teacher special education students. School Climate and culture Resistance

Question 20

Stages of Behavioral Consultation

Answer 20

Problem identification - consultee and consultant prioritize concerns and select target behavior and tentative goals - Area of concern - If you focus on one of these four think what would it be Problem Analysis - ABC, determine strengths and weaknesses - brainstorm - The most important - Get a sense of what teachers are willing to do (buy-in) Plan implementation - implement and monitor intervention, support consultee Plan Evaluation - Evaluate goal attainment and plan effectivenes

Question 21

Behavioral Model

Answer 21

built on the theories of learning that have been adapted by behav- iorists such as Skinner, Bandura, and Meichenbaum (Conoley & Conoley, 1 992) and made specific in the area of consultation by Bergan (1 977) and Kratochwill and Bergan (1 990). Martens and DiGennaro (2009) describe behavioral consultation as voluntary face-to-face interviews with the consultee to “identify and analyze client problems and to design and evaluate intervention plans” (p. 1 47). Following the behavioral tradition, the student’s problem is defined in operational terms (i.e., very specific and overt behaviors). Conditions that instigate or sustain the behaviors are identified, an intervention plan that includes some type of modification to the contingencies that support the behavior is developed, and the student’s responses to the interventions are graphed and compared to preintervention (baseline) performance (Martens & DiGennaro, 2009)

Dougherty (2000) indicates that a behavioral approach to consultation differs from a clinical-
diagnostic approach in that the focus is on behaviors that are either observable to the teacher or
parent or reportable by the student.

Consists of identifying ABC’s

Question 22

Stages in behavioral consultation

Answer 22

Bergan (1 977) and Bergan and Kratochwill (1 990) have delineated four stages that form the
structure of the behavioral consultation model: problem identification, problem analysis, plan
implementation, and plan evaluation.

(1) In problem identification (60% of variance in plan implementation was accounted for by the effectiveness of problem identification).
- prioritize and identify target behavior
- operationally dfine target behavior (frequency, accuracy, duration, intensity, latency) may include discussion of what behaviors are and areno t examples of the target behaivor
- collect baseline data
- establish intervention and long-term goals
(2) In problem analysis
- Through functional observations and interviews (behavioral concern, examine possible antecendent and consequent events that maintain the behavior
- conduct brief experimental analysis to determine if it is a performance or skills deficit and whether the student needs to elarn (acquisition), practice (fluency), or generalize the skills (academic concern)
- look for patterns in errors or behaivoral disruptions
- generate a hypothesis about why the problem is occuring (which environmental demands is greater tha nwhat developing skill?)
3. In plan implementation,
- Brainstorm interventions related to the target beaivor and consistent with hypothesis
- select the interventions that are feasible, evidcen based, and indicated by the problem behavior
- delineate who will provide waht intervention; describe the intervention in enough detail to monitor, including what will occur, how often it will occur, and what resources are needed.
- identify mehtod and person for conducting intervention integrity checks
- identify method and person for collecting progress-monitoring data
- establish date/time for follow-up meeitng
4) I**ntervention evaluation - **
- Examine intervention fidelity data
- examine progress-monitoring data relative to intervention goal
- apply a decision-making rule to determine whether to discontinue, continue, or modify the intervention
- if necessary, schedule a followup meeting
4. For plan evaluation, Bergan (1 977) suggests three steps: evaluating goal attainment, eval-

uating plan effectiveness, and planning postimplementation. The goals should have been estab-
lished during the problem identification stage and should have flowed naturally from the nature
of the problem. The primary objective of this stage is to determine how well the goals have been
met

Question 23

Mental health model

Answer 23

The mental health tradition is based on psychodynamic theories of human interaction (Conoley &
Conoley, 1992; Erchul, 1993). Developed by Gerald Caplan.

In strong contrast to the behavioral model, which emphasizes contingencies of reinforce-
ment, modeling, and self-reinforcement, the mental health model stresses intrapsychic feelings and
shows how they affect interpersonal relationships

Mental health consultation also differs from behavioral consultation in its focus on the consultee rather than the client.

The main goal of mental health consultation is to increase the capacity of the consultees. As such, researchers of mental health models of consultation often collect data on changes in the attitude or behavior of the consultee rather than the out-come of the client (Knotek, Kaniuka, & Ellingsen, 2009).

Collaboration is encouraged.

5 key concepts:

1. The relatinoship between the consultatn and the consultee is coordinate and nonhierarchical
2. Consultation is usually conducted as a short series of interviews
3. The consultant does not get involved in the personal problems of the consultee
4. A long-term goal of all consultation is to improve the on-the-job functionign of consultee.
5. The Caplans intend their model to be used primarily for mental health problems.

Question 24

Types of Mental Health Consultation

Answer 24

4 types

1. Client-centered case consultation - the consultant deals directly with a client (student) in

order to provide some service (such as assessment or treatment) or to develop ideas that a consul-
tee can use when working with the client

2. Consultee-centered case consultation-the consultant deals directly with the consultee in

order to assist the consultee in formulating a plan for dealing with the client. The consultant has little
or no direct interaction with the client.

3. Program-centered administrative consultation - the consultatn evaluates a policy or program and devleops a plan for improving it
4. Consultee-centered administrative consultation - the consultant works with a group of consultees to help them develop better ways of managing their program.

Question 25

Caplan and Caplan (1993) four “lacks”

Answer 25

Caplan and Caplan (1 993) point out four “lacks” that may explain why a consultee has difficulty
dealing with a client: knowledge, skill, confidence, and objectivity.

Question 26

Models of school consultation

Answer 26

1. Conjoint behavioral consultation (CBC) - Recognition of the central role of family-centered

contingencies in the lives of children has prompted behaviorists, such as Kramer (1 990) and
Sheridan and Kratochwill (1 992), to expand their ideas about behavioral applications to working
with families. defined as “a systematic, indirect form of service delivery, in which parents

and teachers are joined to work together to address the academic, social, or behavioral needs of
an individual for whom both parties bear some responsibility” (Sheridan & Kratochwill, 1 992,
p. 22). In this system, both parents and teachers serve as consultees simultaneously and jointly
identify the priority need, the most acceptable interventions, and the success of the intervention.

2. Instructional consultation (IC) - Rosenfield, Silva, and Gravois (2009) describe instruc-

tional consultation (IC) as having the dual focus on content and process. The content imparted
includes assessment methods that can guide instruction, evidence-based academic and behav-
ioral interventions, fidelity assessments, and decision-making rules. The important processes
include the problem-solving steps, developing a consultee-centered working relationship, and an
emphasis on collaboration. Like the other models, the intent of IC is to improve students’ per-
formance by improving the capacity of their teachers. IC’s distinguishing feature is a focus on
improving student outcomes in order to reduce inappropriate referrals or eligibility for special
education (Rosenfield et al., 2009). IC consultants are trained to identify and support

a variety of instructional interventions that seek to improve the match between the developing
capabilities of the student and curricular demands in order to improve student academic engaged
time, a major contributor to academic success

3. Ecobehavioral consultation - b. Student problems are characterized by a mismatch between the capabilities of the child and demands of the system. As the name implies, this consultation model combines eco-

logical systems theory with behaviorism. Urie Bronfenbrenner (1 977) proposed understanding
development, including ways to influence a developing child, by examining her changing environ-
ment. In this model, development is viewed as a series of mutual accommodations or transactions
between the child and her environment, including settings that are far removed from the actual child,
such as federal legislation on special education services or a district-level policy on retention stan-
dards. Ecological systems theory also stresses focusing on

conditions that can be modified (number of books in the home, number of minutes spent reading
with parents) rather than a child’s social address (nationality, ethnicity, class, neighborhood), which
is generally immutable (Bronfenbrenner, 1989). Ecobehavioral consultants often attempt to inter-
vene in multiple contexts, including the internal functioning of the child (Bonner, 2005). Unlike
behaviorism’s narrow focus on observable behaviors, ecobehaviorism does consider the child’s cog-
nition, motivation, prior learning, and attributions in identifying ways to help (Bonner, 2005).

4 **Collaborative consulation model - ** **The key components of this model are shared

decision making and an emphasis on mutuality in all stages of the process.

Question 27

Consulstant Roles/Skills/Activities

Answer 27

Roles

• Information delivery
• Coordination/facilitation/teaching
• Indirect service provision

Skills/Knowledge

• communication
• problem solving,
• plan development and implementation and progress evaluation
• interpersonal effectiveness

MORE SKILLS

a. Forging positive relationships
b. Conveying competence and confidence
c. Believing situation can and will improve
d. Empathy
e. Genuiness
f. Following through with enthusiasm
g. Developing and maintaining trust
h. Being aware of personal values
i. Communication skills

Activities

• interviews, observing interactions, review records, coordinating servieces, keeping accurate records, in-service development

Question 28

Student Study Teams (SST)

Answer 28

The SST member roles include a facilitator or leader
(who may or may not be a school administrator), a recorder (someone assigned to keep notes
on the procedures), the referring teacher(s), and a timekeeper. A survey of SST members
across Ohio found school psychologists (24%) to lead the team most often, followed by the
principal (1 8%) and a rotating chair (1 4%; McNamara, Rashee, & Delamatre, 2008).

to work together to solve learning and behavior/adjustment problems of students, and to try to solve these

problems within the context of general education.

1. Help students at risk for school failure and their teachers by providing alternatives in terms
   of teaching and behavior management strategies.
2. Prevent learning problems and unnecessary placement in special education.
3. Delineate and clarify suggestions for teachers.
4. Approach school problems by using teamwork and brainstorming.
5. From an administrative standpoint, provide a method for tracking cases and coordinating
   services.

The essential purpose of an SST is to do group problem solving.

Question 29

Qualities of “good” goals

Answer 29

observable, measurable, attainable and ambitious, meaningful, outcome (not an intervention)

Question 30

80/15/5 rule of thumb

Answer 30

Christ (2008) observed that consultants cannot spend time analyzing problems on the indi-
vidual level for all the students in a school. Rather, he suggests an 80–1 5–5 rule of thumb in
which 80% of the students are supported by general instructional and curricular practices, 1 5%
are provided group-level support, and 5% receive more intensive, individual-level problem-solving
support and monitoring

Question 31

RIOT

Answer 31

review records, interview, observe, and test

Question 32

Factors to consider in designing or modifying interventions

Answer 32

1. It makes sense in light of the referral; that is, it is data based and (ideally) scientifically based.
2. It is designed with a specific objective in mind.
3. It is not overly labor intensive; the consultee should not feel that he has been given an
   undue burden to carry.
4. All stakeholders are involved in and supportive of the plan.
5. It has some form of evaluation built in with checkpoints established.
6. It meets the KISS standard: Keep it simple and sensible.

Question 33

Treatment integrity/fidelity

Answer 33

Sanetti and Kratochwill (2009) defined treatment integrity, also referred to as treatment fidelity,
as “the extent to which the essential intervention components are delivered in a comprehensive
and consistent manner by an interventionist trained to deliver the intervention” (p. 448). Noell
(2009) describes two levels of treatment integrity to consider: the consultation process and the
intervention plan implementation

Question 34

Teachers vs. School Psychologists on behavior attribution

Answer 34

a. How do teachers and SP view problems differently? Teachers attribute more internal factors…SP attributed to external factors.
b. When interventions worked…teachers gave themselves credit… it failed…teachers said it was the students. When it works…SP credits the child…when it fails it is the environment
c. Teachers want direct services!
d. Match the intervention to what teachers think is the root of the problem. Teachers thought academic success is the indicator of an effective intervention.

Question 35

Communication Skills

Answer 35

** Attending** - paying attention/ eye contact, head nods, and squinting or lifing of the eyebrows as appropriate. Making sure consultee feels relaxed

**Active Listening- ** Active listening shows the speaker that you have heard both the subject content and the emotional content of her message. The active listener reflects back the speaker’s words in such a way that the speaker
knows that her words have been accurately heard and that the listener has understood the feelings
behind the words (paraphrase).

Empathic - They want educators to listen to their concerns, to understand them at a level greater than just the word meanings alone, and not to rush to preformed solutions.

Being assertive

• use “i” messages instead of “you” message
• say “and” instead of “but”
• state behavior objectively
• name your own feelings
• say what you want to happen
• express concern for others
• use assertive body language (eye contact, posure, tone)

**Questioning - **. It is therefore incumbent on the consultant to ask questions in such a way that the consultee is not threatened by the questions and, by extension, the consultation process.

Benjamin (1987) suggested that there are three format considerations in the questioning
process: open/closed, direct/indirect, and single/multiple

c. Language structural skills
i. Concrete words focuses on behavior instead of attitude about the behavior.
d. Minimal encourages
e. Feelings/affect
f. Nonverbal
g. Silence
h. Paraphrasing
i. Summarization clarification
j. Reflection
k. Questions
i. Combination of open and closed questions.

Question 36

Elements of rapport

Answer 36

i. Elements of rapport
1. Posture – replicate/mirror body posture of partner
2. Gesture – as you respond, use similar sized gestures as partner
3. Tonality – be loud or soft, strong or gentle, replicating tones you hear
4. Language – listen for verbal cues to preferred learning style

Question 37

Potential difficulties in communication

Answer 37

1. Advice
2. False reassurances
3. Misdirected questions
4. Wondering interaction
5. Interruptions
6. Cliches
7. Credibility act

Question 38

Interpersonal skills

Answer 38

1. Forging positive relationships
   
   1. people are more willing to work with affable, outgoing, and friendly people than with people who aren’t
2. Conveying competence and confidence
   
   1. develop a repertoire of evidence-based interventions (EBI) and methods for evaluating intervention outcomes that can be adapted to fit a variety of situations.
3. Projecting the idea that the situation is going to improve
   
   1. Be optomistic
4. Following through with enthusiasm
   
   1. follow through without being a nag
5. Developing and maintaining trust
   
   1. Be honest and dependable
6. Treating consultees as adults
   
   1. avoid talking in a condesencing manner

Question 39

6 types of power

Answer 39

Reward, in which Person A is able to bestow benefits, valued praise, or awards on
Person

Coercive, in which Person A can either dispense or withhold benefits from Person B or can
legitimately confront Person

Legitimate, in which Person B believes that Person A has a legal or an authoritative ability
to control Person B.

Referent, in which Person B sees Person A as similar to himself or holding like values and

may therefore comply with suggestions from Person A.

• The collegial nature of consultation, its nonhierarchical foundation, its voluntary status, and the
  use of indirect rather than direct confrontation tactics are all hallmarks of referent power.

Expert, in which Person A is perceived as having knowledge or expertise not possessed by
Person B.

• Expertise in the process of consultation is essential. If a school consultant is not
  expert in the processes of consultation, she must seek help to become expert or abandon the
  enterprise. She should also be expert in the content of consultation (that is, specific information
  about interventions for learning and behavior problems and best practices in education), because
  it can assist the consultee in developing his ideas about what he might be able to do about the
  referral problem. He was expert in his ability to main-
  tain a calm demeanor, in his willingness to listen and integrate data, in his wanting to be helpful
  without taking over, and in setting a plan. These are all examples of process expertise.

** informational power**, in which the information has the
power, not the person (A) who provides the information.According to Raven (1 965), informational power derives from the fact that information based on scientific findings, or based on the experiences of people who know about the topic, is almost always recognized as valuable (“Research says”)

Question 40

Resistance

Answer 40

If consultees or students don’t want to engage in the changes intended by a
consultative effort, they usually find some way to avoid that effort. We call these avoidance tac-
tics resistance.

Resistance can derive
from personal experiences or characteristics of the consultee as well as systemic influences such
as well-accepted school norms, subtle hints from administrators, or anything that interferes with
the problem-solving process (Wickstrom & Witt, 1 993).

Types of resistance…

1. The direct block - ignore
2. “yes but”
3. I did it, but it didn’t work”

Causes of resistance

1. Habit strength
2. Threat to role image or security (getting help is sign of weakness)
3. Too much work
4. Philosophical belief conflicts (“treat all children same”)
5. Poor planning/delivery
6. Psychological deficits within the consultee
7. Lack of skills (“don’t know how”)

Question 41

Reducing resistance

Answer 41

• Reducing the threat
• developing positive expectations
• incentives
• establsih a clear plan
• reduce consultees effort
• Stay with the situation until it is resolved
• Don’t waste people’s time (15-20 min consult max)

Question 42

Multicultural considerations

Answer 42

Cultural competency is not something one can “arrive at.” Rather, it is a complex set of
skills and knowledge that can continuously be improved upon. Some suggestions for enhancing
cultural competence include:

1. Be aware of and reflect on cultural differences; they can affect parent–teacher-consultant
   interactions.
2. Examine your own cultural beliefs and ways of responding. How are they congruent or not
   congruent with the school’s culture?
3. Try to understand a student’s behavior within the context of her culture.
4. Find ways to validate culturally specific beliefs, actions, and contributions.
5. Learn about family members’ beliefs about schooling, disability, and child rearing.
6. Learn about important historical events that may impact adjustment, such as past priva-
   tions from living in a refugee camp.
7. Realize consultees may or may not be familiar with a collaborative approach to consultation.
8. Be familiar with some words and forms of greetings that are common to the students and
   families you serve.
9. Attend local community events and celebrations such as a quinceañera or Tet (Vietnamese
   New Year).
10. For students who recently arrived from a non-English-speaking country, learn important
    words and phrases to assist the student’s very early adjustment to the classroom.

Question 43

Important variables in school learning

Answer 43

Greatest effects on school learning…

1. Student characteristics.
2. Classroom practices.
3. Home and community educational contexts.
4. Design and delivery of curriculum and instruction.
5. School demographics, culture, climate, policies, and practices.
6. State and district governance and organization

Proximal variables: psycholgoical, instructional, and home environment

Instrucional variables: classroom managmeent techniques and the amount and quality of the teacher-learner academic and social interactions.

Two major findings from the present review suggest important policy implications:

the actions of students, teachers and parents matter most to student learning; poli-
cies at the program, school, district, state and federal levels have limited effect
compared to the day-to-day efforts of the people who are most involved in stu-
dents’ lives. Knowing that proximal variables have a greater impact on school
learning than distal ones, educators, when formulating policies, should be mindful
of where they can make the biggest difference in terms of the student, the class-
room and the home. (p. 279)

Question 44

9 reasons for poor school achievement and interventions:

Ineffective instruction

Answer 44

1. Ineffective or insufficient instruction
2. They do not want to do it (performance).

• The student is not motivated to respond to the instructional demands.
2. They have not had enough help to do it (acquisition).
• Insufficient prompting and feedback for active responding
• Student displays poor accuracy in target skill(s)
3. They have not spent enough time doing it (fluency).
• Insufficient active student responding (practice) in curricular materials
4. They have not had to do it that way before (generalization).
• Student does not generalize use of the skill to natural setting and/or to other
materials/settings.
5. It is too hard (poor instructional match).
• The instructional materials are too difficult and the student has a high rate of errors or
nonproductions.

Strategies:

1. Instructional match
2. Instructional expectations (high and clear)
3. Classroom environment
4. Instructional presentation (perky pace, eliciting many responses, monitoring student’s progress, providing feedback, modeling good reading, etc.
5. Cognitive emphasis (prompts students to think about their thinking)
6. Relevant practice
7. Student understanding
8. Informed feedback
9. Adaptive instruction

6.

Question 45

9 reasons for poor school achievement and interventions:

Motivation

Answer 45

Some students don’t do well in school because they are not interested in the curriculum or in the
way it is presented; they do not believe they can be successful with schoolwork, are frustrated by
repeated failure, do not feel a sense of support from home for the importance of school or success
in learning, or believe that school success is not as important as success in other aspects of life.

There are numerous reasons for poor motivation:
• Lack of instructional match, resulting in difficulty keeping up with the material and a sub-
sequent desire to quit attending to material that seems overwhelming.
• Lack of role models at home or in the community; parents, siblings, or peers who show lit-
tle or no interest in school achievement.
• Disorganized teaching and unclear expectations for success.
• Depression, attention-deficit disorder, or other health problem.
• Lack of opportunity to learn due to poor classroom management, insufficient textbooks
and other curricular materials, or high rates of mobility, absenteeism, or tardiness.
• Disengagement from schooling in general or from a particular subjects or teacher.
• Little reinforcement for succes

Interventions:

• Premack principle, technology, groups, publically post progress

VanDerHeyden and Witt’s (2008) review of the can’t
do/won’t do literature found that approximately 27% to 50% of the students identified as having
significant academic learning problems had performance, not skill, deficits

Question 46

9 reasons for poor school achievement and interventions:

Lower than average intellectual or language development

Answer 46

Suggested interventions:
• Directly teach vocabulary by increasing the amount students read and are read to; directly
teaching important words in isolation and in context, varying the number of repetitions to
meet individual students’ needs; teach word acquisition strategies, and build curiosity
about words into the lessons and classroom ecology.
• Provide for repetition, review, and rehearsal under varying conditions.
• Use manipulatives, visuals, and concrete aides.
• Increase “wait time,” the span of time given to students to respond before moving on to
another student. Three seconds is a good rule of thumb for appropriate wait time.
• Preteach academic skills and content, including vocabulary words. Arrange with the stu-
dent ahead of time the question you will ask him during whole-group instruction so he can
be prepared to answer it.
• Model all responses, expecting students to respond; provide corrective feedback.
• Group students heterogeneously, so low achievers can profit from the modeling provided
by more adept students.

Question 47

9 reasons for poor school achievement and interventions: Health and sesnory factors

Answer 47

Suggested interventions:
• Interview parents, student, teacher, and other support providers about their perceptions of
the disability or illness to identify ways to lend support. There are cultural variations on
how illness is interpreted and very serious gaps in America’s health care system.
• If the student is likely to have prolonged absences from school, work with your special
education service providers to arrange for home and hospital educational services.
• Increase cleaning and other hygienic behaviors (training students to sneeze into their
sleeves) for classrooms with a student who has a compromised immune system.
• Inquire about food for students who are nutritionally deprived.
• Refer to the school nurse and possibly to other health providers if you suspect a sensory or
health problem.
• Inform parents about potential support groups.
• Accommodate seating and other variables for the student.

Question 48

9 reasons for poor school achievement and interventions:

DIfficulty concentrating

Answer 48

Suggested interventions:
• Place students in environments where distractions are minimized.
• Keep the lessons highly structured. Provide an advanced organizer, review previous les-
sons, set learning and behavioral expectations, have lesson resources available (rather thancounting on the student with ADHD to find them); and provide direct instruction and

coaching on how to obtain additional help, monitor one’s attentiveness, and reinforce for
academic responding.
• Use materials that draw attention to the relevant stimuli.
• Have students repeat instructions before getting started on assignments.
• Assign highly distractible or inattentive students to study buddies who can assist in keep-
ing them on-task.
• Find activities that will give hyperactive students something to do, within the confines of
task expectations.
• Teach organizational and study skills.
• Try organizing the material into smaller chunks, if feasible. Be predictable. Follow a simi-
lar schedule in presenting lessons and organizing the daily activities.
• Use technology that serves an instructional purpose and doesn’t become yet another source
of distraction.
• Reinforce all efforts at concentrated work, including collaborating with parents on rein-
forcing their child’s productivity and accuracy.

Question 49

9 reasons for poor school achievement and interventions:

Emotional and behavioral disorders

Answer 49

Suggested interventions:
• Try to maintain a conflict-free classroom; do not let students bully others. Have a class-
wide and schoolwide positive behavioral support program in place.
• The teacher may need to find ways of giving students who disturb the classroom a non-
punitive time-out from whatever stress is causing the student to become agitated or
withdrawn. Time-outs should be carefully designed to not unintentionally reinforce the
disruptive behavior by allowing the student to escape an activity she disliked.
• Refer the student to a school counselor, school psychologist, or perhaps to a local mental
health agency.
• Chapter 6 contains many other suggested interventions for students who exhibit behavior
disorders.

Question 50

9 reasons for poor school achievement and interventions:

Deficiences in study skills and learning strategies

Answer 50

Study skills can be classified into three categories: (a) organization of materials—a tidy
desk and backpack and organized notebooks reduce time lost searching for the necessary materi-
als; (b) organization of time—turning in assignments on time, budgeting time, including break-
ing large projects down into more manageable parts, using a planner, setting long- and short-term
goals; and (c) study skills—reading for comprehension, test taking, note taking, outlining, mon-
itoring how they study and learn.

Suggested interventions:
• Universal interventions: Along with teaching content, all teachers teach students how to
study the content to ensure integration and retention, including modeling and reinforcing a
standard note-taking strategy across content areas. All the teachers also reinforce students’
use of an agenda to track short- and long-term assignments, including allowing time in
class to update the agenda and spot-checking students’ agendas. Finally, all teachers incor-
porate mnemonics into their content lessons.
• Targeted interventions: Advancement via Individual Determination (AVID) is a popular study
skills program designed to close the achievement gap (discussed further in Chapter 8). Middle
and high school students take this as a course to improve their writing, inquiry, and time man-
agement skills. Students are taught to generate high-ordered questions (i.e., questions involvingsynthesis, analysis) about the content they are learning in their advanced-placement courses.

AVID acts as a support for average to low-average students enrolled in high-caliber classes.
• Intensive interventions: Small-group instruction on note taking, binder organization, test-
taking strategies, metacognitive skills and setting short- and long-term goals with model-
ing, rehearsal, and performance feedback. Teach self-talk strategies such as “read, cover,
recite, check” to monitor mastery of content. Exemplary homework and binders could be
showcased. Students’ use of the skills is spot-checked throughout the entire year.
• Include parents in teaching and reinforcing good study skills. The responsibility for
recording assignments and organizing materials should shift from the parent to the student
as the student ages.

Question 51

9 reasons for poor school achievement and interventions:

Learning disabilities

Answer 51

Suggested interventions:
• Modify the curriculum to allow students with learning difficulties to have more learning
trials. Directly teach the targeted skills and monitor progress toward desired learning goals.
• Increase academic learning time by scaffolding general education lessons (i.e., previewing
vocabulary, adaptive technology, advanced organizers, thinking maps, cooperative group-
ing, etc.). A challenging lesson is appropriately modified if the student’s responses are cor-
rect over 90% of the time.
• Provide tiers of interventions to match the intensity of the student’s needs. More intense
interventions may be small-group and led by a professional trained in specialized teaching
techniques (i.e., experimental teaching, Reading Recovery, Lindamood-Bell, etc.). These
occur frequently, are closely monitored, and are based on a functional analysis of the stu-
dent’s needs (i.e., brief experimental analysis, error analysis, classroom observation etc.).
• Reinforce approximations to complete success; don’t require perfect papers from those for
whom this goal is stress-inducing.
• After the faithful implementation and failure of interventions designed to ameliorate or
compensate for a student’s academic learning problems, the teacher, consultant, or parent
should make a formal referral for assessment in order to determine if the student meets the eligibility criteria for the category of learning disabilities. Students with learning disabilities will benefit from good coordination and collaboration between all the teachers who teach

them. If a “pull-out” model is used, careful consideration should be provided about what the
student will miss during his special education supplemental instruction. Further, both teach-
ers want to try to teach and reinforce the same skills and strategies in both contexts.

Question 52

9 reasons for poor school achievement and interventions:

Cultural, socioeconomic, and linguistic

Answer 52

Suggested interventions:
• When working with English language learners, make sure that oral presentations to them
are comprehensible. Repeat key phrases and emphasize important vocabulary. Increase theuse of visual aids and wait time. Use the primary language (L1 ) to support learning in the

second language (L2) by teaching cognates (words like elephant and elephante that are
similar in both languages), providing instruction in L1 , and teaching students to read in
their primary language as it is associated with higher levels of reading in English later on
(Goldenberg, 2008). Research has consistently indicated that skills and knowledge
acquired in one language transfer across languages so that a student will either know it in
both languages or it will be much easier to learn in the other language (Goldenberg, 2008;
Vanderwood & Nam, 2007). English language development, a specialized curriculum
designed to promote English acquisition, is best taught as a separate period of instruction
(Goldenberg, 2008). Accept answers based on content, not perfection of English grammar.
Many of the services provided in an RtI model will assist ELL students, including early
screening of academic skills and providing intensive interventions in the language of
instruction to students who are significantly delayed (Vanderwood & Nam, 2007).
• Use examples from all the different racial and ethnic groups represented in the classroom.
Include parents and community members in delivering instruction in a culturally consis-
tent manner.
• Monitor ALT to ensure students have high success rate. Increase ALT by extending the
school day or year. Schools using the knowledge is power program (KIPP) schools have
had good success with students experiencing poverty, due in part, to their extended school
day, week, and year.
• Incorporate technology such as Accelerated Math by the Renaissance Learning
Corporation or resources located on the AIMSweb Web site to more easily gather and
apply formative data on students’ progress (Ysseldyke & McLeod, 2007).
• Use cooperative learning as often as possible. It can lead to greater participation of minor-
ity students. When grouping students from different racial and ethnic groups for class-
work, provide a structure and common goals that will require the various groups to work
together. Proximity alone does not ensure social harmony (Slavin, 1 997). Peer tutoring has
been found to be of great assistance in helping at-risk students from all soc

Question 53

Positive Behavior Intervention and Support (PBIS)

Answer 53

is the science of building effective environments that teach and encourage appropriate behaviors to replace the use of inappropriate behavior.

b. Prevent→Teach→Reinforce
i. Prosocial strength-based approach

Question 54

Effective classrooms

Answer 54

1. Post, teach, review, monitor, reinforce expectations
2. Maximize structure and predictability
3. actively engage students in observable ways
4. continuum of strategies to acknowledge
5. Continuum of strategies to respond to inappropriate behavior

Question 55

PBIS requirement

Answer 55

1. Structure and predictability
   
   1. Predictable routines
   2. effective layout/environment
2. Expectations
   
   1. Prompt (verbal reminders, behavioral rehearsals, demos done prior to entering areas)
3. Actively engage students
4. Acknowledge appropriate behavior
   
   1. specific behavior praise (5 positive statements to 1 corrective)
      
      1. must include child’s name, description of behavior, immediately after behavior, explanation of why the behavior is valued or the natural consequnces of it.
5. Reponses to inappropriate behavior
   
   1. Immediate specific feedback
      
      1. name specific unwanted behavior, state expectation, model expected behavior, ask student to demonstrate behavior, provide acknowledgement, complete ODR, keep it brief and move on
   2. differential reinforcement
   3. planned ignoring
   4. response cost
   5. time out from reinforcement

Question 56

Group contingencies

Answer 56

All for one, interdependent

• reinforcement is contingent on behavior of whole group

One for all, dependent

• reinforcement is contingent on behviorof one person or small gorup of persons

To each his/her own, independent

• each student earns reward based on his/her own behavior.

Question 58

Managing surface behavior

Answer 58

• Planned ignoring
• proximity control
• removing seductive objects
• expressing concern
• providing nonpunitive isolation
• “problem cue”
• open discussion

Question 59

Establishing effective classrooms

Answer 59

• effective requests
  
  • When I see you…that tells me…if you want to …then you would …
• reprimands
  
  • not publically
  • look at student while speaking
  • stand near the student while speaking
  • do not point your finger
  • do not insist on the “last word”
• infrequent errors
  
  • respond proactively to infrequent social errors
• frequent errors
  
  • precorrect/prompt for desired behavior in problem context.

Question 60

Development considerations for behavioral interventions

Answer 60

• Elementary
  
  • tokens, stars, notes home to parents, verbal encourages, primary reinforcers, behavioral contracts
• Secondary
  
  • understand rational regulations that govern compliance
  • priavte discussion/intervention
  • model compliance
  • reinforce with compliments

Question 61

Objective info vs. Subjective info

Answer 61

Objective info

• observable, factual, able to be counted/described/imitated, the same from multiple resources, helpful in deciions making

Subjective info

• opinion or judgment, assumption of belief, rumor, confusing and misleading