Conservation Reserves

Question 1

What is the percentage of the Earth’s land surface that is currently protected globally?

Answer 1

Globally, there are over 160,000 protected sites, covering about 15% of the Earth’s land surface. About 4% of the Earth’s land surface is strictly protected. In marine systems, currently, around 3% is protected, though this is increasing. Territorial waters are about 8% protected, mostly coastal water up to 12 nautical miles offshore, and the exact protections in these areas vary a lot.

Question 2

How much of territorial waters are protected and what kind of activities are allowed in marine protected areas in the US?

Answer 2

approximately 8% of territorial waters are protected in the US. However, it’s important to note that the protections applied in these areas vary widely. In the US, for example, 86% of the area included in marine protected areas is available for multiple use, including activities such as fishing and recreational boating.

Question 3

What is the current size of National Parks, National Wildlife Refuges, and National Forests in the United States?

Answer 3

National Parks, National Wildlife Refuges (NWR), and National Forests occupy over 1,650,000 km2 in the United States, which is almost the size of Alaska.

Question 4

Are all lands within the National Parks, National Wildlife Refuges, and National Forests in the United States strictly protected?

Answer 4

No, not all lands within the National Parks, National Wildlife Refuges, and National Forests in the United States are strictly protected. For example, hunting is allowed on many National Wildlife Refuges, and logging occurs on National Forest lands.

Question 5

Where can one find detailed information about protected areas in the United States?

Answer 5

For US protected areas in general: http://gapanalysis.usgs.gov/padus/
For US marine protected areas: http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/ecosystems/mpa/

Question 6

What were the specific targets set by the Convention on Biological Diversity in 2010, and how close are we to achieving them?

Answer 6

The Convention on Biological Diversity set specific targets in 2010 for how much land should be protected. These targets were one of 20 “Aichi Targets,” and Target 11 aimed to protect 17% of global terrestrial habitat and 10% of marine habitat by 2020. Many countries have failed to reach their goals, and a 2015 study found that we would still need to double the amount of protection globally to meet all the targets for individual countries, ecological regions, and species.

Question 7

What is Target 11 of the Aichi Targets, and what does it aim to achieve?

Answer 7

Target 11 of the Aichi Targets aims to protect 17% of global terrestrial habitat and 10% of marine habitat by 2020.

Question 8

How do individual countries set their own national goals for protecting habitats?

Answer 8

Individual countries set their own national goals for protecting habitats by considering their unique ecological and political circumstances, as well as the targets set by the Convention on Biological Diversity.

Question 9

What did the 2015 study by Butchart et al. find about the amount of protected area and the achievement of national goals?

Answer 9

The 2015 study by Butchart et al. found that although the amount of protected area is increasing steadily, many countries have failed to reach their goals. The study also found that many individual species of conservation concern have no protection at all, and that many have inadequate protection.

Question 10

How many individual species of conservation concern have no protection, according to the study?

Answer 10

According to the study, many individual species of conservation concern have no protection at all, and the number of such species is not specified.

Question 11

How much additional protection would be needed globally to meet all the targets for individual countries, ecological regions, and species?

Answer 11

The 2015 study by Butchart et al. concluded that we would need to double the amount of protection globally to meet all the targets for individual countries, ecological regions, and species.

Question 12

Where would most of the additional protection need to be located?

Answer 12

Most of the additional protection would need to be located in poorer countries.

Question 13

Why are many parks created, and what types of areas do they tend to protect?

Answer 13

Many parks are created to protect land that has scenic beauty, such as National Parks that tend to be found in dramatic mountainous areas. These parks protect stunning rock and ice, and around 7% of protected lands globally are in Greenland, which is not well known as a biodiversity hotspot.

Question 14

Why are many parks created, and what types of areas do they tend to protect?

Answer 14

Around 7% of protected lands globally are in Greenland, which is surprising because it is not known as a biodiversity hotspot.

Question 15

How well does the distribution of parks overlap with areas of high species diversity or endemism? Provide an example.

Answer 15

The distribution of parks does not overlap very well with areas of high species diversity or endemism. For example, almost all (95%) of the alpine and subalpine habitat in California is protected, but very little (10%) of the chaparral, coastal scrub, or grassland habitats that harbor many of the state’s rarest and threatened species is protected.

Question 16

What are some examples of high-priority biological criteria used to select areas for protection?

Answer 16

Some high-priority biological criteria used to select areas for protection include areas with high species richness, lots of endemic species, rare ecosystems, and the presence of indicator or flagship species that attract public and political support.

Question 17

How are flagship species and focal species used to identify priority areas for conservation, and what is the difference between them?

Answer 17

Flagship species are those that attract attention to an area and give conservation efforts a higher profile. Focal species are those that in some way indicate the presence of an area that is considered to be a high conservation priority. Both can be used to identify priority areas for conservation, but the difference is that flagship species are often high-profile and flashy, while focal species may be indicator species that help identify areas with high conservation value.

Question 18

Can you explain the Endemic Bird Area program and how it helps in identifying sites for protection?

Answer 18

The Endemic Bird Area program is a program by BirdLife International that identifies sites with high numbers of bird species that have small ranges and are endemic to a particular area. This program helps in identifying priority sites for conservation as it focuses on areas that have unique and important bird species.

Question 19

How does the existing suite of protected sites affect the selection of new sites for protection?

Answer 19

The existing suite of protected sites influences the selection of new sites for protection as new sites are often selected to complement the existing set of sites in other ways. Priority may be given to land that is adjacent to an existing reserve to help make it bigger, and habitats or species that are already well protected may receive less attention than those that are not so well protected.

Question 20

Can you describe the process of GAP analysis and how it is used to select new sites for protection?

Answer 20

GAP analysis is a formal way of deciding how to select new sites to add to an existing reserve system. The process involves identifying what biodiversity is in an area, determining the conservation goals, identifying what is already protected, and determining which sites do the best job of filling in any “gaps” in protection. The goal is to target these areas and repeat the process iteratively until all goals are met.

Question 21

Why is it important to ensure that all ecosystem types are represented within a reserve system, and how does this benefit biodiversity conservation?

Answer 21

It is important to ensure that all ecosystem types are represented within a reserve system as this helps ensure that the system is representative of what biodiversity is present in the area. This benefits biodiversity conservation by preserving a range of ecosystem functions and services that are essential for the survival of many species.

Question 22

What are some reasons why it is important to identify the biodiversity present in an area before selecting it for protection?

Answer 22

It is important to identify the biodiversity present in an area before selecting it for protection because it allows for better targeting of conservation efforts. Knowing which species are present and which ecosystems are most threatened can help guide the selection of sites for protection and the development of effective conservation strategies.

Question 23

Can you provide some examples of rare ecosystems that might be prioritized for protection?

Answer 23

Some examples of rare ecosystems that might be prioritized for protection include old-growth forests, wetlands, coral reefs, and grasslands.

Question 24

Why is an iterative process important in selecting sites for protection, and how does it help achieve conservation goals?

Answer 24

An iterative process is important in selecting sites for protection because it allows for the identification of new goals and priorities as conservation efforts progress. It also allows for the refinement of conservation strategies and the adaptation of approaches to changing circumstances.

Question 25

How can grassland conservation be prioritized over temperate rainforest protection, even though the latter is better protected globally?

Answer 25

Grassland conservation can be prioritized over temperate rainforest protection if grasslands are more threatened or if they support more threatened or unique species. The fact that temperate rainforests are better protected globally does not necessarily mean that they are less in need of conservation attention in a particular area. Prioritization of conservation efforts should be based on the specific needs and threats faced by different ecosystems in a given region.

Question 26

How does economics influence the prioritization of protected areas?

Answer 26

Economics influences the prioritization of protected areas by affecting the cost of acquiring and protecting land, as well as the competing demands for the land. The availability of funds and the potential economic benefits of using the land for other purposes can also play a role in decision-making.

Question 27

Why is it more expensive to protect coastal wetlands or lowland forests than remote lands in the Arctic, desert, or mountains?

Answer 27

Coastal wetlands and lowland forests are more expensive to protect than remote lands in the Arctic, desert, or mountains because they are more desirable and often have competing demands for development, housing, and other uses. Additionally, the value of the land may be higher due to its proximity to cities and urban areas.

Question 28

How do competing demands for land affect the cost of protecting an area for conservation?

Answer 28

Competing demands for land can affect the cost of protecting an area for conservation by driving up the price of the land, making it more expensive to acquire and protect. If the land has high value for other uses, such as agriculture, development, or resource extraction, it may be more difficult to justify protecting it solely for conservation purposes.

Question 29

Can you provide examples of consumable products that make it difficult to set aside land for conservation?

Answer 29

Examples of consumable products that make it difficult to set aside land for conservation include oil, timber, minerals, and agricultural crops. These products can generate significant revenue and employment opportunities, which may be difficult to ignore in favor of protecting the land for conservation purposes.

Question 30

How does the provision of valuable services, such as flood control by wetlands, affect the selection of areas for protection?

Answer 30

The provision of valuable services, such as flood control by wetlands, can affect the selection of areas for protection by increasing their perceived value and justifying their protection based on their ecosystem services. This can help to make the case for protecting areas that might not otherwise be considered high priority for conservation.

Question 31

What role does land availability play in achieving an idealized reserve system?

Answer 31

Land availability plays a significant role in achieving an idealized reserve system because for land to be bought and protected, someone must be willing to sell it. This can be a major impediment in areas where a lot of land is in private ownership.

Question 32

Why is accessibility an important feature of reserve lands?

Answer 32

Accessibility is an important feature of reserve lands because many protected areas serve multiple functions other than nature conservation, and most are owned and administered by governments. Making them accessible to taxpayers who pay the bills can help to justify their protection and increase public support for conservation efforts.

Question 33

How can accessibility affect the argument for protecting a particular piece of land?

Answer 33

Accessibility can affect the argument for protecting a particular piece of land by making it easier to argue for protection if it is easy for people to visit. In contrast, a lack of accessibility can make it more difficult to make the case for protection, as fewer people are likely to have visited or have a personal connection to the area.

Question 34

How do multiple functions of protected areas, other than nature conservation, influence their accessibility to people?

Answer 34

The multiple functions of protected areas, such as recreation, education, and scientific research, can influence their accessibility to people by creating a greater demand for visitation and use. This can increase the need for infrastructure and facilities, which can be costly and create conflicts with conservation goals.

Question 35

How does the limited access to places like the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) affect the argument for protecting them?

Answer 35

The limited access to places like the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) can affect the argument for protecting them by making it easier for opponents to argue that they are not worth protecting because few people have been there or are likely to visit. This can decrease public support for conservation efforts and make it more difficult to justify protection.

Question 36

What is a metapopulation and why is it important for the survival of certain species?

Answer 36

A metapopulation is a group of partly isolated populations of a species connected to each other by dispersal. It is important for the survival of certain species because it allows for genetic exchange between populations and can increase the resilience of the species to environmental changes.

Question 37

How does the spatial arrangement of protected land affect the persistence of metapopulations?

Answer 37

A metapopulation is a group of partly isolated populations of a species connected to each other by dispersal. It is important for the survival of certain species because it allows for genetic exchange between populations and can increase the resilience of the species to environmental changes.

Question 38

What is the Bay checkerspot butterfly and why is it endangered?

Answer 38

The spatial arrangement of protected land can affect the persistence of metapopulations because if the protected areas are not connected or are too far apart, the dispersal of individuals between populations may be limited, leading to isolation and potential loss of genetic diversity.

Question 39

What are source populations and sink populations in metapopulations?

Answer 39

The Bay checkerspot butterfly is an endangered subspecies found only in the San Francisco Bay area. It relies on certain plants that are only found on specific soils, and the habitat for this species is naturally fragmented but has been further fragmented by human development.

Question 40

How can the loss of one piece of habitat affect the population of a species in another piece where conditions have not changed?

Answer 40

Source populations are those in which reproduction exceeds mortality, producing more individuals than are needed to maintain a stable population size. Sink populations are those where there are not enough births to match the number of deaths, leading to population decline unless there is immigration from source populations.

Question 41

Why might sink populations still be important to protect?

Answer 41

The loss of one piece of habitat can affect the population of a species in another piece where conditions have not changed if the lost habitat was a source population that was providing individuals to other populations in the metapopulation.

Question 41

Why might sink populations still be important to protect?

Answer 41

Sink populations might still be important to protect because they may have the potential to become source populations in the future, and they may contribute to genetic diversity within the metapopulation.

Question 42

What is a “pseudo-sink” and why is it important to consider when identifying sources and sinks?

Answer 42

A “pseudo-sink” is a site that can switch from having a net loss of individuals to having a net gain. This can happen, for example, if the population density is high and competition is causing birth and survival rates to be suppressed. If the population were to decline a bit, the competition might also decline, causing birth and/or survival rates to increase. It is important to consider this when identifying sources and sinks because a sink population may have the potential to become a source population under certain conditions.

Question 43

Can a site be both a source and a sink for a species? Why or why not?

Answer 43

Yes, a site can be both a source and a sink for a species. For example, a population may be a source during some years and a sink during others, depending on environmental conditions or other factors that affect population growth and mortality.

Question 44

How might protecting sink populations benefit the genetic variation within the entire population of a species?

Answer 44

Protecting sink populations can benefit the genetic variation within the entire population of a species by maintaining connectivity between populations and allowing for genetic exchange. It can also provide a safety net in case a source population is lost or declines in the future.

Question 45

How can management practices potentially turn a sink population into a source population?

Answer 45

Management practices can potentially turn a sink population into a source population by improving the habitat quality and reducing the factors that are limiting population growth and reproduction. For example, habitat restoration, predator control, or supplemental feeding may increase birth rates and survival rates, turning a sink population into a source population.