Congress Flashcards
What is the most unpopular branch of the U.S. government?
Congress
Despite its unpopularity, Congress is considered the most important branch for understanding the national government.
How many pages of the Constitution are dedicated to Congress?
Four and a half pages
Compared to the presidency’s one and a half pages and the Supreme Court’s three-quarters of a page.
What powers are encompassed by the ‘power of the purse’?
Taxation and spending decisions
This power is considered one of the most important powers of Congress.
What is the relationship between Congress and federalism?
Congress sustains federalism by guaranteeing two senators per state without regard to state population
This ensures equal representation in the Senate.
What role does Congress play in the system of checks and balances?
Overrides presidential vetoes and determines federal judiciary structure
Congress is essential in maintaining the separation of powers.
What is the public perception of Congress in recent decades?
Congress is viewed as ‘the broken branch’
Many believe it cannot effectively address pressing issues and is overly responsive to special interests.
What was the typical approval rating for Congress in the past decade?
Less than 20 percent
Approval ratings have sometimes dipped below 10 percent.
What paradox exists regarding public opinion and congressional incumbents?
Americans disapprove of Congress but reelect their own members
Richard F. Fenno’s phrase encapsulates this contradiction.
What trend has been observed in party polarization in Congress since the 1970s?
Increased polarization and party-line voting
This polarization has led to fewer bipartisan agreements.
What was the party composition in the House at the end of the 91st Congress in 1970?
29 Republicans in the liberal half and 59 Democrats in the conservative half
This contrasts sharply with the composition in 1998.
What is the minimum age requirement to serve as a Representative in Congress?
25 years old
Age is counted when seated, not when elected.
What must a Senator be in terms of citizenship?
A citizen of the United States for nine years
Senators must also be at least 30 years old when seated.
What privilege do members of Congress have regarding their legislative speech?
Privileged speech
Members cannot be questioned for any speech or debate in either house.
What did James Madison think of representatives who refuse to compromise?
He disparaged them as selfish or unenlightened
Madison envisioned members as public-spirited representatives.
What is the fundamental difference between a ‘congress’ and a ‘parliament’?
A congress features a separation of powers; a parliament does not
This reflects the Framers’ intention to avoid a parliamentary system.
What is the origin of the term ‘Congress’?
Derived from a Latin term meaning ‘a coming together’
This implies a meeting of representatives from various places.
What is the origin of the term ‘Parliament’?
Comes from a French word meaning ‘to talk’
This reflects the primary role of discussion in parliamentary systems.
What is the origin of the term ‘Congress’?
Derived from a Latin term meaning ‘a coming together’
Refers to the meeting of representatives from various places.
What does the term ‘Parliament’ mean?
Comes from a French word ‘parler’ meaning ‘to talk’
Indicates a focus on discussion in legislative processes.
How does one typically become a member of a parliament?
By persuading a political party to put their name on the ballot
Usually involves local party committees and national party suggestions.
How does one become a candidate for the U.S. Congress?
By running in a primary election
Parties may influence outcomes but cannot control primary elections.
What is a key difference in the composition of a parliament versus a congress?
Parliament members are loyal to national party leadership; Congress members think of themselves as independent representatives
This affects how laws are made and government is run.
What is the primary decision that members of a parliament can make?
Whether or not to support the government
This is crucial as it impacts the stability of the government in a parliamentary system.
What happens if members of a ruling party in parliament vote against their leaders?
The leaders lose office and a new government must be formed
This creates a strong incentive for party unity.
What is one power that Congress has independently of the president?
Can vote on proposed laws without worrying about government collapse
This independence allows for more diverse representation.
What is the principal work of a congress?
Representation and action
Most of this work occurs in committees.
How does the salary and resources of a U.S. Congress member compare to that of a British parliament member?
U.S. Congress members earn a substantial salary and have extensive resources
British members receive modest salaries and limited resources.
What is the franking privilege?
Allows members of Congress to mail newsletters and certain documents to constituents for free
This privilege supports communication with voters.
Why might Congress be unpopular with voters?
Because it engages in political arguments and compromise decisions
Voters often desire clear and decisive government action.
What was one reason the Framers chose a congress over a parliament?
To prevent the concentration of power in a single governmental institution
They feared rule by an oppressive majority.
What are the two competing values in Congress that affect its ability to act?
Centralization versus decentralization
This balance influences how quickly and decisively Congress can act.
What is the structure of the U.S. Congress?
A bicameral legislature with a House of Representatives and a Senate
The House is made up of directly elected members, while the Senate consists of two members from each state.
What fundamental problem does the House of Representatives face?
The desire to be big and powerful while maintaining individual member power
This creates ongoing challenges in governance.
How does the Senate differ from the House in terms of leadership authority?
The Senate can operate without giving much authority to a small group of leaders
This is due to its smaller size (100 members).
What is the size of the Senate?
100 members
What was a significant issue in the Senate before the Civil War?
The number of senators from slave-owning states equaled those from free states
Until when were senators not elected by the voters?
Until the 20th century
Who initially chose senators before the 20th century?
State legislatures
What was the Senate often referred to by the end of the 19th century?
The Millionaires’ Club
What amendment established the direct election of senators?
The Seventeenth Amendment
What are the qualifications to be a member of the House?
- At least 25 years of age
- Citizen of the United States for at least seven years
- Inhabit the state from which elected
What is the length of terms for members of the House?
2 Years
What special powers does the House have?
- Legislative authority
- Impeach
- Power of the purse
- Elect the president in case of a tie in the Electoral College
What are the qualifications to be a member of the Senate?
- At least 30 years of age
- Citizen of the United States for at least nine years
- Inhabit the state from which elected
What is the length of terms for members of the Senate?
6 Years
What special powers does the Senate have?
- Legislative authority
- Conduct impeachment trials
- Review and approve presidential nominees
- Approve treaties made by the president
What is a filibuster?
A prolonged speech or series of speeches made to delay action in a legislative assembly
What was the first serious effort to restrict the filibuster?
In 1917
What is Rule 22 in the Senate?
A rule allowing debate to be cut off if two-thirds of the senators present and voting agree
Who was the first woman to serve as Speaker of the House?
Nancy Pelosi
What significant change occurred in the House in the 1970s regarding committee chairs?
They had to be elected by the members of the majority party
What was the result of the House revolt against ‘Czar’ Cannon in 1910-1911?
Stripped the Speaker of his right to appoint committee chairs
What demographic changes occurred in Congress from 1950 to 2017?
- Women in the House increased from 9 to 83
- African Americans increased from 2 to 47
- Latinos increased to 38 members
True or False: The Senate has a more formal set of rules compared to the House.
False
Fill in the blank: The Senate was known as the _______ due to the wealth of its members.
Millionaires’ Club
What was the main reason for the demand for the direct election of senators?
Political maneuvering among faction leaders in state legislatures
What was the increase in the number of women in the House of Representatives from 1950 to 2017?
From 9 to 83 (plus 4 delegates)
This includes representatives from U.S. territories and the resident commissioner of Puerto Rico.
How many African Americans served in the House of Representatives in 2017?
47 (plus 2 delegates)
The total includes representatives from U.S. territories.
What is the number of Latino members in the House of Representatives as of 2017?
38 (plus 1 delegate and the Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico)
How many Native American members were in the House of Representatives in 2017?
2
What significant change occurred in the Senate regarding African Americans and women before the 1992 election?
No African Americans and only two women served in the Senate
How many women served in the U.S. Senate during the 115th Congress?
21 women
What is a majority-minority district?
A congressional district where a majority of voters are racial or ethnic minorities
What is descriptive representation?
When a minority officeholder represents minority constituents
What are the potential drawbacks of majority-minority districts?
They may harm minority interests and decrease the likelihood of electing Democrats in surrounding districts
This can lead to less responsiveness to minority voters’ needs.
What is substantive representation?
The ability of citizens to elect officials who will enact policies they favor
Who was the first woman to become Speaker of the House?
Nancy Pelosi in 2007
What demographic changes occurred in Congress between the 102nd Congress (1991-1992) and the 115th Congress (2017-2018)?
Increased diversity with more women, blacks, and Latinos, and fewer lawyers and military veterans
What was the average age of House members in the 115th Congress?
58
What was the average age of Senate members in the 115th Congress?
62
What proportion of House members were first-termers in the 19th century?
Often a majority, with over half serving their first term in 1869
What happened to the proportion of first-termers in the House from 1863 to 1969?
Fell from 58 percent to 8 percent
What did the Supreme Court rule regarding term limits for federal legislators?
Could only be imposed by a constitutional amendment
What percentage of the public supported term limits according to a 2013 Gallup poll?
75 percent
What effect do term limits reportedly have on politicians’ responsiveness to public opinion?
They decrease responsiveness
What was the average reelection rate for House incumbents from 1964 to 2016?
93 percent
What was the average reelection rate for Senate incumbents from 1964 to 2016?
82 percent
What percentage of House incumbents who sought reelection won in the 2010 midterm election?
85 percent
How did House incumbents typically perform against their opponents in elections?
Beat their opponents by 10 points or more
What is the historical trend of reelection rates for House incumbents from 1964 to 2016?
Reelection rates have been consistently high, with more than 60% of House members reelected with at least 60% of the major-party vote since the 1970s.
What defines marginal districts and safe districts?
Marginal districts are those where the winner receives less than 55% of the vote; safe districts are where incumbents win by 55% or more.
What percentage of House seats were considered marginal in the 2014 election?
Only 11 percent of House seats were marginal.
What advantages do incumbents have over challengers?
Incumbents have advantages such as large fundraising capabilities, name recognition, and access to free mailings and public travel.
What role does incumbents’ familiarity play in elections?
Familiarity helps incumbents get elected as they are better known to voters than challengers.
How do incumbents use their power to benefit their districts?
Incumbents can pass programs or allocate funds that benefit their districts, thereby increasing their support from constituents.
What is the incumbency advantage?
The incumbency advantage refers to the tendency for incumbents to perform better than challengers in elections.
How many Congresses convened between 1933 and 2017, and how many were controlled by Democrats?
Forty-three Congresses convened, with Democrats controlling both houses in 27 of them.
What political shift occurred after the 1994 elections?
Republicans have been in power more often than Democrats since 1994.
What is gerrymandering?
Gerrymandering is the process of drawing district boundaries to favor one party over another.
What is the impact of gerrymandering on congressional elections?
Gerrymandering influences elections but its effect is modest rather than massive.
What constraints limit the effects of gerrymandering?
Constraints include state and federal laws requiring equal population in districts and the creation of majority-minority districts.
How do Republican and Democratic voter distributions differ?
Republican voters are more evenly spread across districts, while Democratic voters are more concentrated in urban areas.
What are the three theories about how members of Congress behave?
The three theories are representational, organizational, and attitudinal.
What does the representational view suggest about Congress members’ voting behavior?
It suggests that members vote to please their constituents to get reelected.
What is the organizational explanation in the context of Congress?
It posits that pleasing fellow members of Congress is more important than pleasing constituents because they can influence legislative success.
What is the attitudinal explanation regarding congressional behavior?
It suggests that conflicting pressures cancel each other out, allowing members to vote based on their own beliefs.
Fill in the blank: Many Southern representatives were able to oppose civil rights measures because the African Americans in their districts were _______.
prevented from voting.
What issues often force legislators to vote according to their constituents’ preferences?
Issues that arouse deep passions among voters, such as gun control and federal funding for abortions.
What are some contentious issues that Congress faces?
Gun control and the use of federal money for abortions
These issues often lead to conflicting views among constituents.
What might members of Congress do when they are uncertain about how to vote?
They may try to be out of town when a vote comes up
This is sometimes a tactic to avoid difficult decisions.
How do members of Congress from marginal districts behave compared to those from safe districts?
They are not generally more eager to vote according to constituent wishes
Research indicates that independent-minded members exist in both types of districts.
What factor limits the representative explanation of congressional voting?
Public opinion is often not strong and clear on many measures
This leads to divided constituencies.
What can enhance the response of legislators to public opinion?
Providing information about public opinion in their districts
Legislators who received this information were more likely to support their constituents’ views.
Why does constituent opinion have a strong effect on member behavior?
Voting against constituents’ wishes risks being voted out of office
Challengers often exploit votes that oppose the majority view of constituents.
What is the organizational view of congressional voting?
Members respond primarily to cues from their colleagues, especially party affiliation
This view explains voting behavior when constituency interests are not at stake.
What is the principal cue that explains a member’s behavior in office?
Party affiliation
Party loyalty significantly influences voting patterns.
Do members of Congress blindly adopt their party’s positions?
No, they consider their own beliefs and the values of their party
This reflects differing views on government roles between Democrats and Republicans.
What are some examples of ideological groups within Congress?
- Congressional Progressive Caucus
- House Freedom Caucus
These groups represent various points of view in ideological debates.
How do members vote on bills they do not understand in detail?
They take cues from party members on the sponsoring committee
This is common for votes not involving major ideological questions.
What do members of Congress consider when voting on bills affecting their state?
They may take cues from members of their state’s delegation
This helps guide their decisions on relevant legislation.
What influences members’ behavior in Congress?
Members’ own ideologies
Political elites think more ideologically than the public, and personal views shape why party is a powerful influence.
How has Congress changed in terms of ideological division?
Congress has become more polarized, with all liberal members being Democrats and all conservative members being Republicans.
What is a crucial factor in the polarization of Congress?
Conservative Southern Democrats became conservative Southern Republicans.
Who tends to have the strongest views in politics?
Political activists
Most Americans remain moderate and nonideological.
What do most voters prefer in terms of political strategy?
Compromise and bipartisanship.
True or False: Most ordinary Americans are highly politically interested.
False
Many ordinary Americans are disengaged from politics.
What role do party leaders play in Congress?
They organize party members and schedule legislative business.
What is the role of the majority leader in the Senate?
Schedule the business of the Senate and consult with the minority leader.
What is a whip in Congress?
A senator or representative who helps party leaders stay informed and rounds up votes.
What is the significance of the Speaker in the House of Representatives?
The Speaker is the principal leader of the majority party and has substantial influence over legislation.
What is a party vote?
A vote where most Democrats are on one side and most Republicans are on the other.
What defines a party caucus?
An association of congressional members created to advance a political ideology or interest.
What types of caucuses exist in Congress?
- Ideological caucuses
- Regional caucuses
- Issue-specific caucuses
- Racial or ethnic group caucuses
What is the primary organizational feature of Congress beyond parties?
Legislative committees.
What determines the power dynamics within Congress?
The chairmanship of committees and subcommittees.
Fill in the blank: The majority party in the Senate usually selects one of its members to be _______.
president pro tempore.
What does the Steering and Outreach Committee do for Democrats?
Assigns senators to standing committees.
What happens when members of Congress have little information on a vote?
They look to fellow party members for advice.
How has party voting changed since the 1970s?
There have been more party unity votes.
What is the Congressional Black Caucus?
A caucus that advocates for issues relevant to African Americans.
What is the task of the majority leader in the House?
Manage scheduling and legislative business.
How do ordinary Americans differ from political activists?
Ordinary Americans are more moderate and less ideologically driven.
What is the most important organizational feature of Congress beyond the parties?
The set of legislative committees of the House and Senate.
Most of the power of Congress is found in the chairmanship of these committees and their subcommittees.
How many committees and subcommittees does a typical Congress have?
About two dozen committees and well over 100 subcommittees in each house.
The number and jurisdiction of these committees are of great interest to members of Congress.
What are the three kinds of committees in Congress?
- Standing committees
- Select committees
- Joint committees
Joint committees include conference committees that resolve differences in the Senate and House versions of a bill.
What is the role of the conference committee?
To resolve differences in the Senate and House versions of a bill before final passage.
The committee is made up of representatives and senators.
What is the typical ratio of Democrats to Republicans on a committee?
It roughly corresponds to their ratio in the House or Senate.
What are exclusive committees in the House?
- Budget
- Appropriations
- Rules
- Ways and Means
- Energy and Commerce
- Financial Services
Members may not serve on any other committee except for Budget.
How many major committees can a senator serve on?
No more than two major committees.
This rule may be ignored in practice.
How did the selection of committee chairs change in the 1970s?
Committee chairs began to be elected by secret ballot within the majority party instead of being appointed based on seniority.
What significant changes did Republicans implement when they took control of the House in 1995?
- Eliminated some committees
- Changed powers of committee chairs
- Imposed term limits on committee chairs
- Banned proxy voting
These reforms strengthened some powers while limiting others.
What is the role of Congressional staff members?
They perform various important tasks, including assisting members of Congress and fulfilling constituent requests.
What is the Congressional Research Service (CRS)?
A service that provides politically neutral information and responds to requests by members of Congress.
It is part of the Library of Congress.
What does the Government Accountability Office (GAO) do?
Investigates policies and makes recommendations on almost every aspect of government.
It has about 3,000 employees.
How is a bill introduced in the House?
By handing it to a clerk or dropping it in a box.
True or False: The president can introduce legislation in Congress.
False.
Only a member of Congress may introduce a bill.
What happens to a bill if it is not passed within one session of Congress?
It is dead and must be reintroduced during the next Congress.
What is a key factor that gives advantages to opponents of new policy in Congress?
The complexity of congressional procedures.
What is the typical staffing situation in Congress as of today?
Around 19,600 staff members, a decline of more than one-quarter since the mid-1990s.
Fill in the blank: Members of Congress often deal with each other through _______.
staff intermediaries.
What is the Congressional Budget Office (CBO)?
Advises Congress on the likely impact of different spending programs and estimates future economic trends.
What is the purpose of a conference committee?
To work out differences between related bills passed by both chambers
A compromise version is sent to each chamber for final approval.
What can the president do with a bill passed by both houses?
Sign it into law or veto it
Congress may override a veto by a two-thirds majority vote in both houses.
What is a simple resolution?
An expression of opinion to settle procedural matters in either the House or Senate.
What is a concurrent resolution?
An expression of opinion that requires approval from both the House and Senate but not the president.
What is a joint resolution?
A formal expression of congressional opinion that must be approved by both houses and the president.
Where must all bills for raising revenue originate?
In the House of Representatives.
What is the role of the Ways and Means Committee?
To handle tax bills, making it a particularly powerful committee.
What happens to most bills introduced in Congress?
They die in committee.
What is a discharge petition?
A device allowing a House member to bring a bill to the floor after 30 days in committee.
What is the quorum in the House of Representatives?
218 representatives.
What is a Christmas-tree bill?
A bill with many riders attached to it.
What is the cloture rule used for in the Senate?
To end or limit debate on a measure.
What is double tracking?
A procedure to keep the Senate functioning during a filibuster.
What is a voice vote?
A voting procedure where members shout ‘yea’ or ‘nay’.
What is a division vote?
A voting procedure where members stand and are counted.
What is a roll-call vote?
A voting procedure where members answer ‘yea’ or ‘nay’ to their names.
How has the process of voting in Congress changed since 1973?
An electronic voting system has been implemented to speed up roll-call votes.
What has contributed to the increase in filibusters since the mid-20th century?
The introduction of double tracking has made filibustering less costly.
What is the significance of the number of cloture votes in Congress?
It indicates the increase in the use of filibusters to block legislation.
What is a restrictive rule in the House?
An order that permits certain amendments but not others during floor consideration.
What is a closed rule?
An order that sets a time limit on debate and prohibits amendments on the floor.
What is an open rule?
An order that permits amendments from the floor during consideration.
What has changed in the decorum of Congress in recent years?
Members have become more personal in their criticisms of one another.
What is the role of the Committee of the Whole in the House?
To debate and amend bills, but not to pass them.
What are the two types of votes used in the House of Representatives?
Voice vote and division vote
A voice vote consists of members shouting “yea” or “nay”; a division vote involves members standing and being counted.
What is required to ensure a roll-call vote in the House?
One-fifth of House members present must request it.
How does the Senate vote?
By voice or by roll call; they do not use teller votes or electronic counters.
What must happen if a bill passes the House and Senate in different forms?
The differences must be reconciled.
What is a conference committee?
A committee formed to iron out major differences between the House and Senate versions of a bill.
What is the requirement for decisions made in a conference committee?
Approval by a majority of each delegation.
What happens to a vetoed bill?
It returns to the house of origin for a potential override.
How many votes are needed to override a presidential veto?
Two-thirds of those present, provided there is a quorum.
What has been observed about congressional productivity in recent decades?
Legislative output has often slowed or declined.
Which Congresses passed the fewest bills in the post-World War II era?
The 112th (2011–2013) and 113th (2013–2015) Congresses.
What is one argument regarding divided government and legislative productivity?
Divided government decreases the passage of far-reaching and costly legislation.
What impact have staff cuts had on Congress’s ability to legislate?
It may have hampered its ability to legislate and oversee agencies.
What role does a policy entrepreneur play in the legislative process?
They help get ideas on the policy agenda and navigate the legislative process.
Who is John M. Bridgeland?
A policy entrepreneur behind federal national service initiatives.
What was the USA Freedom Corps?
An initiative to expand national service programs.
What did the Edward M. Kennedy Serve America Act accomplish?
It authorized and revitalized community service projects.
What is pork-barrel legislation?
Bills that provide tangible benefits to constituents in exchange for votes.
What is the frank privilege in Congress?
The ability to send mail free of charge using a facsimile signature.
What does the Congressional Accountability Act of 1995 require?
Congress must obey 11 important laws governing civil rights and labor standards.
What is the primary criticism of Congress regarding self-regulation?
It imposes new laws on others but is slow to apply those laws to itself.
What percentage of federal spending is typically attributed to pork?
About 2.5 percent.
True or False: The Senate allows for emergency replacement of senators by state governors.
True.
Fill in the blank: A bill that is amended in the last house to act may simply refer it back to the other house, which then _______.
accepts the alterations.
What is pork spending in the context of federal budgeting?
Pork spending refers to government spending for localized projects secured primarily to bring money to a representative’s district.
Pork spending is often criticized as unnecessary, but it can also fulfill essential needs in certain areas.
What percentage of total annual federal spending was pork spending from 1993 to 2005?
About 2.5 percent, on average.
By 2015, pork spending was reported to be below 1 percent of total federal spending.
What are entitlement programs mentioned in the text?
Entitlement programs include health care programs like Medicaid and Medicare.
These programs contribute significantly to the federal budget deficit.
True or False: The main cause of the budget deficit was the increase in spending on pork projects.
False.
The deficit was primarily due to increased spending on entitlement programs without a corresponding increase in taxes.
What is the role of pork in Congress according to the text?
Pork serves as a way to obtain consent and support from voters in a member’s district.
It is seen as a necessary aspect of advocacy for constituents.
Fill in the blank: If you want to eliminate pork, you must eliminate ______.
Congress.
This implies converting it into a parliamentary system where votes are commanded rather than bought.
What is one alternative to pork spending mentioned in the text?
Bribery.
Bribery is considered wrong and primarily benefits only the individual member, unlike pork which can benefit voters.
What are the consequences of converting Congress into a tightly controlled parliament?
Members can do little to help constituents or defend against bureaucratic abuses.
They also cannot effectively investigate the executive branch.
How does the text define the relationship between pork and citizen-oriented Congress?
The price of a citizen-oriented Congress is a pork-oriented Congress.
This suggests that to serve constituents effectively, some level of pork spending is necessary.
