Conflict in Indochina

Question 1

Northern politics to 64

Answer 1

Ho’s regime in power in the North, predestined the political tension and ultimate stabilisation that allowed Ho to act on his nationalistic vision.

• lack of support gained at geneva=drastic measures like Chinh’s Agricultural Reform Tribunals
  - death of 100000 feudalists landlords, french collaborationists etc
  - fear leads to peasant rebellion e.g. November Nghe revolt 1956

-Ho steps in: apologising, dismissing chinh and his shit in 1958 and instating new secure policies, winning the hearts and minds to politically stabilise

• stalled by promise of 1956 elections
• when called off a need for military action is made prominent

Question 2

North Economic to 64

Answer 2

The geographic split and lack of support predestined the North’s initial economic turmoil but ultimately allowed the northern economy to flourish, eliminating southern dependency and constructing the economic backbone necessary for prolonged war

• no support despite Japanese exploitation and french war leaving northern economy fragile built on the ruins of infrastructure
• survive via aid from communist china and USSR
• worsened by geneva split down 17th parallel depriving north of mekong delta
• despite this north given opportunity to become self sustaining and strengthen as a nation
• cooperativisational program 85% peasant participation rate by 1960, north can feed itself.
• Three Year Economic Plan implemented in 1958 sees previous french business nationalised
• economic growth rate highest in asia

-rise of confident and independent north prepared for warfare

Question 3

North Social to 64

Answer 3

-despite class struggle and paranoia born of tribunals, stabilised as one people under Ho.

• 300 day period of legal migration allowed over 1000000 catholics and would be opposers of Ho to move south replaced with over 140000 vietnminh (who ho led in first indochina war).
• loss of population, particularly skilled professionals, was a blow but further unified the nation.

Question 4

south political to 64

Answer 4

• bao dai and premier diem chosen at agreements, anti-communist anti-colonialist
• support allowed diem to consolidate power: october 1955 rigged referendum and calling off 1956 election
• regime: nepotism, can lao arresting 150000 by 1961, killing 12000 communists under ordinance 47 (1956)
• US continue to support due to fear of domino theory
• quang duc self immolation 11 june 1963
• coup on 1 november 1963
• revolving door republic, now ideologically bound and politically reliant in US

Question 5

South economic to 64

Answer 5

• wouldve been as fragile as north without us aid, $322m in 1955 alone.
• money to migrant catholics (tax avoidance) and cities (new factories and transport schemes)
• created rich middle class and poor bitter rural peasants
• impact grew with cold war escalation
  
  • further polarised north and south
  • made southern defeat a greater blow to us international esteem (70% of reason for involvement in 1971 pentagon papers)

Question 6

South Social to 64

Answer 6

• pre-vietminh landlords reclaim land and charge peasants
• agroville program
• 20 december 1960 NLF establish
  
  • 5500 regular force and 30000 irregular guerrilla force
  • infiltrated every corner of southern life
• assassination of 4000 accessories of Diem
• 1961 80% control of countryside, threatening diems power
• diem and US think all resistance from North, thus moniker Vietcong, US policy of containment (1947 Truman doctrine)
• US manpower 1954: 600 to 1963: 16700

Question 6

Nature and development of US policy towards indochina

Answer 6

Truman(45 to 53: 1947 Truman Doctrine
Eisenhower(53 to 61): Domino Theory

John F Kennedy (1961-Nov 1963): incremental escalation +proof he may have been planning withdrawal

Johnson (Nov 1963-69): americanises the war

Nixon (1969-74): peace with honour, vietnamisation
Ford: cleaning up and walking away

Question 7

ARVN and US Strategy and Tactics:

Answer 7

Strategy:
Attrition- overwhelming firepower making war costly for north to keep up. Measured in bombs dropped and body count.

Identify NLF and sympathisers

Wipeout enemy hideouts and supply lines

Gain control of hanoi in the north.

WHAM

–ultimately flawed strategy, accounting for north as a domino of communism not a nationalistic struggle

Tactics:
Search and destroy- suddenly surround and attack villages harbouring/helping VC. Villages often destroyed without evidence of VC.
(Made possible by helicopters)

Helicopters- 5500 in vietnam by 1968, most important weapon for US.
-Allowed for quick movement over jungle but needed clear space to land was was loud. VC had time to run or set trap.

Carpet Bombing- 27 tonnes of bombs could be dropped on a mission, more than one mission per day for several years.

Defoliant- agent orange “operation ranch hand”- 19million gallons from 65-71. Caused genetic problems

Napalm- petroleum jelly and thickening agent

Pacification- moving south vietnamese residents to refugee camps and burning villages-Strategic Hamlet Program

Question 8

NVA and NLF Strategy and Tactics:

Answer 8

Strategy:
Attrition- prolong the war to wear down US forces, funds and morale. Willing to lose a dozen men for each US death.

Gain support of South Vietnamese citizens

Remove US from vietnam as a communist regime under Ho.

Tactics:
Hit and run- ambush- attacks at night

Booby traps e.g. Punji sticks- 0 cost and citizens can do it, building morale- 11% of US deaths

Travelled with nothing more than a ak-47, ammo and rice. No uniform so they could blend in with civilians.

VC and north troops respect civilians, help them when possible. In return civilians would house, feed, hide them from US

Cu Chi Tunnels
250km of tunnels, all the way to Cambodian border

Ho Chi Minh Trail
Network of trails from north vietnam through cambodia to the south, in places over 80km wide
-Up to 10000 tonnes of supplies daily

50s-64: VC supplied by north
64-68: NVA forces move south, engage in few set piece battles
68-72: after VC losses at tet offensive, NVA continue bulk of the fighting.
72: full scale conventional warfare
75: Victory

Question 9

Tet offensive:

Answer 9

Jan-Feb 1968

Attack included 84000 communist troops targeting 36 of 44 south provincial capitals and more than 60 other towns.

Aims:

• hoped scale of attack would spur civilians to revolt
• collapse thieu’s presidency
• convince US to leave due to communist determination.

Result: miscommunication on start date (29/30/31 Jan) meant few towns captured prematurely, alerting South forces.

Losses: US/ARVN-9000 civilian-14000
VC/NVA-60000
-nearly 3/4 of all houses in Hue destroyed or badly damaged (worst of the fighting, continued till march)

Consequences: Morale/propaganda loss for the americans, boost for North:

• TV news focused on scale of the attack, pictures of North forces on the grounds of the US embassy. While america easily won the large majority of these battles it was enough to convince US citizens they were losing, and thus had been lied to. Included respected reporter Walter Cronkite who shared his belief the war could only end in stalemate, “if ive lost walter Cronkite, iv lost mr average citizen”- johnson
• Destroyed president johnsons career as he was forced to backdown on all his stances on the war. did not run for re-election.
• general Westmoreland received no more troops past 1968, #peaking at 550000.
• nixon elected on november on platform of ‘peace with honour’ and ‘vietnamisation’

Question 10

Nature and significance of anti-war movement:

Answer 10

1964- small scale protests insignificant to administration

1965/66- Students for Democratic Society (SDS) protests, membership grows to 30000

 - campus sit-ins, teach-ins and draft card burning popular. By 1973 13500 persecuted for draft resistance.
- norman morrison self-immolates outside pentagon

1967-some senators questioning war

1968-anti war candidates seeking election, nixon wins on platform of “peace with honour”

1969-November 250000 people march in Washington

    - Kent State University protest has 4 students shot by national guard, further furore ensues.
   - Nixon invasion of cambodia sparks more protests
   - counter demonstrations to support troops e.g. 100000 march in new york.

1971- scale of protests drops as withdrawal is imminent

Despite the furore support for the war never drops below 50%, vocal minority

Reasons:
1) us not winning- made apparent at tet
2) media
3)issues of social inequality- civil rights movement ongoing in 60s, sees war as not treating all americans fairly.
Middle class are able to get college deferments to get out of draft while lower class cant afford to.

Impact:
-did not have a major impact on the results of the war. Primarily lowered US troops morale and increased nothern morale

Question 11

US Policy Under Nixon

Answer 11

Elected November 1968 (after tet)

Vietnamisation- believed ARVN could be built up to fight on its own with US financial support so US could with withdraw troops.

Scaled back beliefs (after tet) from total victory to maintaining an independent southern state as happened in Korea

Linkage- persuade Soviet Union and China with concessions in the nuclear and economic fields (cold war tensions) to pressure North Vietnam to compromise in the peace talks.

Madman theory-false message to north vietnam that Nixon is a mad anti-communist with his finger on the nuclear button, putting extra pressure on hanoi.

Peace with Honour-
Bring troops home while convincing president Thieu he was not being deserted. Needed to put pressure on North Vietnam if he wanted serious negotiation at the Paris Peace Talks but without enflaming the anti-war movement at home.
Whats more serious progress had to be made before 1972 if he wanted to be reelected.

National Security Advisor- Henry Kissinger

Question 12

Result of Nixons Policies 1969-71: Operation Phoenix

Answer 12

1969: Operation Phoenix
Aim- to neutralise VC chiefs and supports, fighting like guerrillas.
-very effective, almost 20000 captured of which 6000 were killed.

Question 13

Result of Nixons Policies 1969-71: Operation Menu/Incursion into Cambodia

Answer 13

March 1969: Operation Menu
Aim-To sever links between NVA troops and their supply routes by bombing the Ho Chi Minh Trail and communists headquarters in Cambodia in secret.

In May 1970 over 100000 US and ARVN troops invaded (‘incursion’) into cambodia to root out communist headquarters. Absolute failure- No bases were found and over 5000 casualties.

On top of this bringing the war to cambodia leaked and enflamed anti-war movement (expanding the war when meant to be winding down)

Question 14

Declining US morale

Answer 14

• everyone knew the war was on the point of being over and for a saigon regime riddled with corruption
• lack of support from home, anti war movement
• constant paranoia of guerrilla warfare

As a result:

• 1971 desertion rates 5x that of 1966
• pentagon estimate 3/4 soldiers had tried heroin
• fragging-in 1971 over 500 cases of troops attempting murder on their officers

-My Lai Massacre in 1968, around 500 unarmed civilians killed (due to paranoia)

Question 15

Problem with Vietnamisation/Weakness of ARVN

Answer 15

Corrupt and Nepotistic:

• rising through the ranks was about contacts not competency
• crucial supplies of medicine, petrol, food diverted or sold occasionally to the Vietcong.

Didnt want to be there:

• many recruits forced into service or volunteers from urban poor.
• 1968 desertion rate of over 17 per thousand

As a result no matter how much US aid received could not hold up the front alone.

Proof: 1971 Operation Lam Son
5000 ARVN troops sent into Laos to attack supply line.
Within 20 days half the ARVN force was dead.

Question 16

Failure of Linkage/Peace Talks

Answer 16

No amount of US tactics and pressure or pressure from China and the USSR would convince North Vietnam to compromise on reclaiming the whole nation as their mission was a nationalist one, communism was just a means of getting it.

The myth of monolithic communism and domino theory also meant communist powers didnt have much sway on North Vietnam no matter what.

E.g. May 1971 deal US offered- full withdrawal, US POWs freed, ceasefire but included allowing Thieu’s regime to remain in the South.
The North could not take this offer (also no mention of bombing which they would like to ensure stopped plz)

Question 18

Gulf of Tonkin:

Answer 18

March 1964- Johnson administration began preparing a draft resolution to give the president the power to take whatever action he wanted against communism.
-US begin secret DESOTO patrols to gain intelligence on North Vietnam and Vietcong forces.

2nd August 1964- USS Maddox DESOTO patrols. Moves within North Vietnamese territorial waters. North vessels attack Maddox. Maddox damages vessels and leaves.

Two days later (4th) Maddox and USS C Turner Joy returned in a violent thunderstorm. Claims, later proven false, were made that the US vessels were attacked again. Could have been due to storm or a deliberate lie for an excuse to retaliate.

Johnson was quick to get on national TV and say this would not be allowed, quickly authorising an air raid.
-Made him seem firm and decisive

Tonkin Resolution:
Within days (August 7th) congress passed the Tonkin resolution- receiving only 2 negative votes through the House and the Senate. 
-Gave Johnson power to take "all necessary measures" to prevent further aggression, basically a 'green light' to do whatever he needed.

Question 19

Johnson:

• Re-election
• Policy

Answer 19

Re-election in November 1964 with a massive majority, riding the decisive appearance he gave after Gulf of Tonkin incident.

Then began to escalate and Americanise the war:

February 1965- VC attack at Plieku has 9 US dead and over 1000 wounded.

• Escalates Operation Flaming Dart: small scale specific air attacks
• Quickly replaced with Operation Rolling Thunder

Operation Rolling Thunder:
Sustaining bombing of North Vietnam for over 3 years with only occasional pause.

March- US send first 3500 combat troops to defensive purposes.
July- increased to 125000 men, over 180000 by the end of 1965.

Question 20

1972:

Answer 20

Nixon became emotional and paranoid, effecting his judgement, after not getting the results he desired or the support he though he deserved.

As the NVA gained ground in the South with their March 30 Easter Offensive, Nixon retaliated the next day by beginning a bombing campaign of selected targets which would last until October.
At one point dropping over 3000tonnes of bombs a day.

October- New peace deal between Kissinger and Le Duc which now included “the right of South Vietnam to decide its own future” and the promise of US to help with reconstruction.

2 billion in aid was given to South in preparation but Nixon held back on signing until the election as it would be seen as a weak deal.

Reelected by a landslide in Nov 1972

Kissinger gives list of amendments to Le Duc which he rejects and returns to Hanoi.

America respond with pointless Operation Linebacker 2:

• 11 days and over 40000 tonnes of bombs
• newspapers describe own governments action as ‘barbaric’

January 1973: Le Duc returns and US sign the deal, forcing Thieu to do the same.

27 Jan-peace treaty signed to end vietnam war

In total almost 60000 US soldier died in Vietnam

Question 21

Reasons For Communist Victory:

Answer 21

1. Failure to understand the nature of the conflict, perceiving a Cold War conflict instead of a nationalistic one. This not only left US strategy flawed from the start but gave Ho’s supporters the dogmatic spirit to keep morale high in dire times, keep Ho Chi Minh Trail open etc.
2. VC/NVA tactics vs US tactics- suiting their country, guerrilla warfare cheap and effective against expensive conventional warfare.
3. Failure to sustain a regime in the South/ weakness of the NVA
4. Impact of the Tet offensive + anti-war movement (maybe 2 points)

Question 22

Collapse of South Vietnam: 1973-75

Answer 22

ARVN relied on US for aid, training, supplies, so their departure in January 1973 was bound to have an impact. But there was still reason to believe they would survive:

• Nixon promised the continuation of economic and military aid
• Thieu believed the US would return if the North broke the Paris Accords
• ARVN was 1million men strong

However:

• Late 1973 Congress passed War Powers Act, limiting president’s power to commit troops to foreign conflicts.
• Further complicated by Watergate Scandal leading to Nixon’s resignation in August 1974. Stole US attention from the situation in Vietnam and left power in hands of Ford.
• US aid was cut below a billion in 1974 to dry up entirely in 1975.

Due to declining aid, by 1974 South Vietnam was in freefall:

• unemployment up to 30%
• fatalistic attitude permeated, those with the means sought to escape

NVA Advance:

• Moved more and more troops South through 1973 and 74
• By late 1974 General Dung had 22 divisions in the South.
• In late 1974 NVA put pressure on Northern provinces of South Vietnam, stretching the ARVN up to Da Nang.
• NVA then launched a surprise attack in the southern region, en route to Saigon in January 1975.
• US did nothing
• ARVN officers abandoned their men and fled in fear

-As noose around Saigon tightened in April Thieu resigned and US fly desperate Vietnemese-US sympathisers out of the capital to waiting ships.

30 April 1975 North take Saigon and thus have won the war.

Question 23

Impact on Civilians:

Answer 23

Up to 3 million Vietnamese dead.

US Bombing:

• Over 70000 dead by low US estimates
• Thousands of children rendered deaf by Operation Linebacker 2 alone, only an 11 day operation
• left villages schools, hospitals, houses) destroyed, destroyed crops and left land impossible to cultivate
• Unexploded mines and shell’s leave large areas of land unsafe.

Defoliant:

• Causes genetic defects in a large percentage of new Vietnamese births
• In 1967 alone over 1 million acres treated, over 20million gallons dropped throughout the war

Defoliants and US bombing combined massively hindered Vietnamese food production- Before the war Vietnam was a net exporter of rice, by 1965 it was a net importer.

Post war:
-Vietnam left poor, partly due to war and partly due to economic sanctions- Trading with the Enemy Act ensures no US trade or investment for decades, with many western governments and the world bank following suit.

This and the execution or forced re-education put upon thousands of South Vietnamese led to many attempting escape on rickety boats, Australia alone taking in 250000 Indochinese refugees.

Question 24

Sihanouk:

Answer 24

When Cambodia gained independence from the French in 1953, Sihanouk (king of Cambodia since 1941) was left in charge.

Originally his rule was fairly well accepted due to Cambodian complacency and respect for aristocracy.

Sihanouk’s rule:
-part of the traditional cambodian royal family, sihanouk was entitled (seeing himself as the embodiment of the camodian state) and laissez-faire in his approach, his focus on living the high life rather than ruling his country.

Disengagement with his people:
a product of french education and elitism, Sihanouk was disengaged from his people e.g. Opening a casino in 1969 when us bombing was ongoing, made policy decisions based on horoscopes

Economic Mismanagement:
Nationalised banks and trade at the same year he cancelled US aid, resulting in a 15% fall in annual national revenue.
(Army short on all commodities exacerbating corruption and fuelled opposition to his rule)

Foreign Policy/Lack of Strong Leadership:
Policy of neutrality, accepting aid from both capitalist (US) and communist (China) sources avoiding cold war involvement, shifted involvement with each sides during the vietnam war hoping to avoid warfare but still be on good grounds with the victor.

-allowed VC to establish bases in eastern cambodia but also allowed prime minister and ex-general Lon Nol to brutally suppress leftist groups

These factors lead to unrest:
In 1967 and 1968 the army ruthlessly put down riots leaving up to 10000 dead.

After his removal in March 1970 Sihanouk united with the Khmer Rouge, to fight against Lon Nol. Even returned to to Cambodia in 1973 to pose for photos with Khmer Rouge guerrillas. The Khmer Rouge hated Sihanouk but he gave them authority and great propaganda.

-also, city based elitism (fostered by the french) led to economic imbalance which sihanouk did nothing to resolve, putting rural peasantry through hardship leaving them more responsive to communism

Question 25

US impact on cambodia:

Answer 25

Operation menu in 1969 and operation Freedom Deal thereafter saw US B-52s drop over 250000 tonnes of bombs on cambodia, more than the US dropped on japan in ww2. This was in an effort to target and destroy the supply route of the NVA down from the North to South Vietnam known as the Ho Chi Minh Trail.

The rural eastern border with vietnam was effected and thus, while having a relatively small civilian casualty rate (less than 10000 estimated by US) the impact on farmland and destroyed homes had a great impact on peasants. Moreover the indignity of the bombing made many turn against Lon Nol who they saw more and more as a US puppet, leading to support for Khmer Rouge.

-Supported Lon Nols coup and gave aid to his regime, inciting corruption

Question 26

Lon Nol:

Answer 26

In January 1970 Sihanouk travelled to Paris. Opportunistically Prime Minister Lon Nol (right wing, strongly anti-vietnamese and anti-communist) organise a coup and took power in March.

Wanted to destroy khmer rouge and remove VC/NVA bases in the east. Vietnamese in Phnom Penh accused of collaborating with NVA, leading to massacre of many.

In April 1970 NVA divisions moved to overthrow Lon Nol, clashing with FANK close to Phnom Penh. Nationalist support rose for the regime to fight the vietnamese, thousands of students enlisting voluntarily.

With the help of US and ARVN incursion (80000 troops) Vietnamese pushed deeper into Cambodia but not out.

Operation Chenla 2: 1971 operation to open a road from phenom penh to kompong som, saw the NVA decimate 10 FANK battalions. Saw morale lower and army deteriorate.

In Jan 1973 the Paris Peace Accords were signed to end the Vietnam War. A stipulation of the agreement was all foreign troops were to withdrawn from Cambodia. The lingering NVA resulted in more US bombing between Feb and August (over 250000 tonnes, more than on Japan in WW2) until they retreated to prepare their attack on south vietnam.
(Bombing and continued attacks by Lon Nol on Khmer Rogue villages, resulting in a mass movement of refugees to phenom penh)

Even so US aid continued in the billions, fuelling corruption and making Lon Nol appear more and more like a US puppet i.e. Responsible for the bombing

Question 27

Rise of the Khmer Rouge

Answer 27

The corruption and detachment of the Lon Nol regime persuaded many Cambodians, even intellectuals, to join the Khmer Rouge.

The belief that Lon Nol was a US puppet and therefore responsible for the bombing rallied rural Cambodians (most affected by the bombing) behind the Khmer Rogue.

1974:

• Khmer Rouge is dominant in rural areas.
• Attack on Phenom Penh fails but the humanitarian situation in the capital is becoming desperate (shambles economy and overpopulation due to rural exodus)

1975:

• Early in the year attack Phenom Penh again.
• 1 April, Lon Nol flew out of the country (with a reported 1 million dollars)

17 April 1975- The Khmer Rouge take Phenom Penh

Question 28

Evacuation of Phenom Penh:

Answer 28

After the fall of Lon Nol on the 17th april 1975 the Khmer Rouge were cautiously received, but Lon Nol had been unpopular and piece was universally welcomed.

The first act of the new regime was the evacuation of Phenom Penh.

Reasons given:

• to avoid urban famine
• to protect people from US bombing

Result:

• Over 2million people were forced out of the city and werent allowed to take any food or belongings.
• Those who refused were beaten or shot
• No exceptions were made. The old, children, patients confided to hospital beds were all forced to move.
• Over half a million died in the evacuation

Question 29

Aims and Methods of the Khmer Rouge:

1.The Preservation of Khmer Racial Purity-

Answer 29

1.The Preservation of Khmer Racial Purity:
Unlike other communist movements the Khmer Rogue was steeped deeply in Cambodian history and tradition. Only the Cambodian peasant was worthy.

-Vietnamese in Cambodia were persecuted, fleeing to vietnam or being killed

-Chinese and ancient minorities such as the Muslim Cham were similarly targeted
Over 100 mosques destroyed

Question 30

Aims and Methods of the Khmer Rouge:

2. The Preservation of Khmer Cultural Purity-

Answer 30

YEAR ZERO

• No modern medicine- antibiotics flushed away and hospitals left to rot
• Only natural native cambodian remedies were allowed.
• No modern transport
• No modern economic institutions- no banks or currency.

-foreign influences were rooted out and abolished like obvious material influences as well as foreign ideas, education and languages.
Many stone buildings destroyed, especially schools.

Glasses were banned, a use of foreign technology but also a sign of intellectualism which was suppressed by the regime

Question 31

Aims and Methods of the Khmer Rouge:

3. The Development of a Communal Way of Life-

Answer 31

• Angkor was everything- it was the state, not the individual, that mattered
• traditional family was decried- loyalty of the child was to Angkor not to their parents. Marital pairings were decided upon by Angkor.

-There was no private life and all usual life activities were carried out communally e.g. Eating, sleeping.
Not that there was much time or energy with up to 16hr work days for meagre rations.

-wearing anything other than black peasant garb was unacceptable.

• Religion was abolished, even though up to 90% of Cambodians were buddhist.
• 3000 pagodas destroyed and few of cambodias over 80000 monks survived.
• other religions were treated similarly.

-Everyone was monitored at all times and could be punished for the smallest of discretion
E.g. Tortured and killed at the prison camp S21, of the 14000 inmates only 7 survived.

Question 32

Aims and Methods of the Khmer Rouge:

4. The Creation of a New Cambodian Society-

Answer 32

• create agrarian society like the Khmer of old.
• a society organised as a system of communes (cooperatives)
• No urban communities, evacuations intended to be permanent.

Only the peasant class could survive in this society and as such intellectuals were targetted

• less than 10% of cambodia’s school teachers and professors survived
• wearing glasses invited punishment
• soft hands (checked by child agents) were scrutinised.

Question 33

Death toll of Pol Pot’s regime:

Answer 33

Estimate anywhere between 1.6 and 3 million, between 1/4 and a 1/3 of the population.

Almost 20000 mass graves identified

Question 34

Khmer Rogue Foreign Policy/ Fall of the Khmer Rouge

Answer 34

Cambodia under the Khmer Rogue was isolated from the world except its friendship with Mao’s China. Pol Pol even visiting Beijing in July 1975.

China enjoyed its friendship with Cambodia due to its rivalry with the Soviet Union, to which Vietnam was allied and the Khmer Rogue had strong cultural hatred of Vietnam (I.e. Enemy of my enemy is my friend).

The Khmer Rogue and Vietnam had a strained relationship from the start, coming into armed conflict as soon as April 1975 over islands in the Gulf of Siam. but over the next 2 years the 2 made no major moves.

By 1978 cross-border raids had continued by both sides.

In December 1978 Vietnam announced the Kampuchea Front for National Salvation to remove the Khmer Rouge.

On Christmas Day 1978 over 100000 Vietnamese entered north eastern Cambodia. The original aim was not to take Cambodia with this initial push (just stationing in the north east) but the opposition faced was so minimal they moved on Phenom Penh.

7 Jan 1979- Phenom Penh is taken, Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge fleeing to the north west.

(China did engage in conflict with Vietnam in defence of the Khmer Rouge but after 6 weeks they withdrew arguing theyd “taught vietnam a lesson”

(Pol Pot dreamed of a ‘Greater Cambodia’ including the Khmer minorities in southern Vietnam. Pot expected them to rise and demand union with cambodia but no such action came (nor would it have been successful) and to him this was as guilty an act as treason.)

Question 35

Pre-course:

Answer 35

-French surrender at dien bien phu
7 May 1954

-Geneva peace talks on indochina began 8 May, accords signed 20 July