Conditions in Early 16th Century Germany Flashcards

1
Q

Abuses alone do not explain the level of anti-clericalism in Germany for several reasons. Why was the situation with abuses not uniformly bad?

A

About half the priests in southern Germany had a degree, which was an exceptionally high proportion, given the rarity of university places. Furthermore, some monastic orders had already reformed themselves, and some bishops were conscientious. The Bishop of Basle in Switzerland warned his clergy not to curl their hair, trade in the churches, get drunk, engage in horse trading, or to buy stolen property.

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2
Q

When did Charles become Duke of Burgundy?

A

After the sudden death of Philip the Fair, Charles became Duke of Burgundy at the age of six.

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3
Q

The two courts of appeal were the Imperial Chamber Court and the Imperial Aulic Court. What was the Imperial Chamber Court?

A

The Imperial Chamber Court, established in 1495, was based in Frankfurt. Although the emperor chose the chief justice and several deputies, the princes, via the circles, selected the 20 judges.

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4
Q

When was the Schmalkaldic League formed?

A

1531

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5
Q

Despite inflation and population growth, many sectors of the HRE’s economy were thriving in the early 16th century. Which industry was particularly successful?

A

The silver-mining industry located in Saxony, Bohemia and the Tyrol: output increased fivefold in the 70 years to 1530.

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6
Q

Though much of his work was serious, Erasmus was also a very witty writer. Give an example of this.

A

In satires like his ‘In Praise of Folly’ (1509) and the ‘Colloquies’ (1518), he poked fun at clerical abuses and superstitious religious practices.

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7
Q

There is a view that anti-clericalism existed because the Church was riddled from top to bottom with a number of abuses. What was simony?

A

Simony was when positions in the Church were sold to the highest bidder rather than awarded to the best candidate.

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8
Q

Why is the diet of Worms known as such?

A

As the empire had no capital city, each diet was known after the town or city where it met. Charles V’s first diet met in the small town of Worms.

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9
Q

From 1475 onwards, what was different about the nature of indulgences?

A

Indulgences could be bought for a dead friend or relative whose soul was already in purgatory.

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10
Q

In the period 1500-1512, the empire was divided into ten ‘circles’, each consisting of a number of states and territories. What was the purpose of these circles?

A

Regional coordination; each circle had an assembly with representatives drawn from all the member states, and this assembly was then meant to enforce decisions taken by the diet, to collect taxes and to supervise coinage. They also had the function of raising troops, either for peaceful or defensive measures.

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11
Q

What was anti-clericalism?

A

Opposition to the clergy, on the basis of their ‘abuses’ and their power.

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12
Q

How did the church make poor people even poorer?

A

Through tithes and high rents on Church lands.

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13
Q

Why did the title of HRE hold remarkably little power?

A

Because there was no salary, imperial army, effective system of imperial taxation or any system of imperial coinage. He could only intervene in disputes when asked to, and had no right to directly intervene in the internal affairs of any of the states or cities in the empire.

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14
Q

What happened to Ulrich of Württemberg 1511-19?

A

He married Sabina, niece of Maximilian and daughter of the Duke of Bavaria, but the marriage was an unhappy one, leading him to fall in love with the wife of a knight called Hans von Hutten. Hans was the cousin of Ulrich von Hutten, a humanist. He killed Hans in 1515, and Sabina fled. Ulrich was declared an outlaw by MAximilian and the Swabian league drove him from Württemberg, which was sold to Charles V.

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15
Q

How did Erasmus in particular pioneer ‘ad fontes’?

A

He produced a new translation of the Greek New Testament in 1516, and where the Vulgate (Matthew 4:17) had used the phrase ‘do penance’, Erasmus suggested that a more accurate translation was ‘be penitent’, suggesting an inward path to salvation.

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16
Q

When did Luther write the 95 Theses?

A

1517

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17
Q

What were open monastic orders?

A

Orders such as the Augustinians, Dominicans and Franciscans were friars who worked within society, preaching and teaching in universities, or helping the poor and sick.

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18
Q

What did Erasmus want for the Church?

A

He wanted open debate and the papacy to lead a reform of the Church. To that end, he challenged ideas, institutions and practices. However, Erasmus did not want to cause a revolution, and he certainly did not want to split the church.

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19
Q

What about the Church annoyed employers?

A

The economic power of Church, and the increasingly large number (over 100 by 1500) of holy days and feast days during which work was forbidden.

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20
Q

What relation was Charles V to Catherine of Aragon?

A

He was her nephew, as his mother (Joanna of Castile) was Catherine’s sister. Catherine and Joanna’s parents were Ferdinand, King of Aragon, and Isabella, Queen of Castile (Hence Catherine of Aragon and Joanna of Castile).

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21
Q

What were the roles of the cardinals?

A

Advisers to the pope, and responsible for electing the pope from one of their number.

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22
Q

When was Loci Communes?

A

1521

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23
Q

When was the Siege of Vienna?

A

1529

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24
Q

Where did the power of the Church lie?

A

In the fact that it claimed to be the only route to eternal salvation. Obedience to the teachings of the Church was therefore crucial in order to minimise the time spent in purgatory and to be saved.

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25
Q

What was the result of simony and pluralism?

A

Often, unqualified bishops who saw the Church solely as a means to make money so that they could live like princes. Pluralists were often non-resident, and their indifference to their responsibilities could be shocking.

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26
Q

Luther unquestionably benefited from the fact that a ‘holy man’ was expected. Why was one expected at the same time Luther rose?

A

A Great Conjunction of the Stars was predicted to coincide in 1524 with a conjunction of all the planets in Pisces. This happens only once every 750 years, and was interpreted as heralding the Second Coming of Christ, and the end of the world.

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27
Q

What did Erasmus say on the subject of Pilgrimages?

A

“We kiss the shoes of saints and their dirty handkerchiefs, yet we leave their words, their most holy relics, neglected”

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28
Q

When was the Peace of Augsburg?

A

1555

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29
Q

Why would it be hard to underestimate the Church’s power in the empire in 1500?

A

It was the largest landowner, controlling about one-sixth of German land. Three of the seven electors were members of the Church, while more than half of the second college in the diet were ecclesiastical princes- prince bishops who acted as secular rulers.

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30
Q

Abuses alone do not explain the level of anti-clericalism in Germany for several reasons. Why was the level of abuses often exaggerated in anti-clerical literature?

A

Scandal meant better sales.

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31
Q

Who were the most important princes in the HRE?

A

The seven electors: the three senior archbishops of Mainz, Cologne and Trier, and four senior secular princes.

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32
Q

What did historian Owen Chadwick say in praise of Erasmus?

A

“More than any other single man, Erasmus lowered the European reputation of pope and clergyman, monk and friar, and above all, the theologian”

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33
Q

When Emperor Maximilian died in January 1519, his lack of organisation caused problems for his grandson, Charles. How so?

A

Characteristically, he had not pre-organised the election, so the 19-year-old Charles was therefore forced to compete for the title of HRE against King Francis I of France.

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34
Q

How did humanists create a climate in which Luther’s protest could thrive?

A

By attacking the papacy and denouncing the exploitation of Germany by Rome, they were partly responsible for the moods of anti-clericalism, anti-papalism, nationalism and xenophobia that existed in 16th century Germany.

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35
Q

The imperial diet could only meet when it was summoned by the emperor. Why, therefore, was it summoned reasonably frequently?

A

Because the emperor could only raise taxes or troops or address national concerns by going through the diet.

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36
Q

Were the sacraments a priority for most people?

A

No- most were far more concerned about this life than they were about the afterlife. For them, the seven sacraments were a low priority, of which four were once-in-a-lifetime events anyway. Since services were in Latin, as was the Bible, most did not even understand official doctrine.

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37
Q

What was an Apostolic Bull?

A

A papal order, so named after the bulla (wax seal) that was attached to the document.

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38
Q

Who was Conrad Celtis?

A

A German humanist, historian and poet, who was even made Poet Laureate in 1487 by the emperor. He focused his attention on a study of German history.

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39
Q

What was the practice known as ‘ad fontes’?

A

Going back to the oldest sources one could find in a search for accuracy.

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40
Q

How did the peasants react to unbelievable hardship coupled with deep resentment of exploitative landlords?

A

It meant that there was an increasingly explosive situation in the countryside. There were 18 significant peasant revolts between 1500-1525, compared to 21 revolts in the HUNDRED years beforehand!

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41
Q

What was penance?

A

In theory, there were four parts to penance: contrition, confession, satisfaction, absolution; feeling sorry, confessing, performing a work of satisfaction, being forgiven.

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42
Q

Why was the level of clerical abuses one theory as to why anti-clericalism was so prominent in the empire?

A

Given their importance in meeting people’s religious needs, whether in this life or the afterlife, one might have expected high standards of professionalism among the clergy. However, such standards were often missing.

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43
Q

Acceptance of papal authority was a central point of Catholic teaching. Yet by the early 16th century, attacks on the papacy were extremely popular. Any cartoon, book or pamphlet that mocked Rome and exposed decadence and scandal became a best-seller in Germany. What were the three main reasons for this anti-papalism?

A

The personal behaviour of the Renaissance popes, the condition of the Church in Rome, and a growing belief that these hypocritical ‘foreign’ popes and their scandal-ridden Roman-church were financially exploiting pious Germany.

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44
Q

There is a view that anti-clericalism existed because the Church was riddled from top to bottom with a number of abuses. What was pluralism?

A

Simony was holding more than one position in the Church.

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45
Q

What is the largest amount of Cardinals that Leo X created in a single day?

A

31

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46
Q

In practice, the only effective armed force in the HRE was the Swabian league, originally created in 1488 for securing law and order in the south west, but with 13,000 troops by 1519. how were these troops used?

A

Maximilian used its troops to crush expansionist attacks being made by Bavaria in 1504, and to evict Ulrich of Württemberg.

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47
Q

What was Eucharist/Communion?

A

Based on the Last Supper of Christ, the bread and wine were consecrated in the miracle of transubstantiation. The laity received only bread, and the priest ‘communion in both kinds’.

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48
Q

What was extreme unction (last rites)?

A

Those who wished to shorten their time in purgatory had to make a final confession and be anointed by a priest before they died.

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49
Q

When was Charles V born to Philip the Fair and Joanna of Castile?

A

1500

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50
Q

Why was the silver-mining industry particularly successful in the 16th century?

A

Until the discovery of New World silver deposits, Germany’s mining industry provided most of Europe’s bullion, which enabled German banking to develop to the point that it challenged that of even Italy.

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51
Q

What did Charles promise to do by signing the Capitulation of 1519?

A

To: respect the rights and privileges of the princes, consult the electors and the diet on all imperial matters, use only Latin or German when in the empire, not appoint foreigners to imperial positions, not bring any foreign troops into the empire and not declare war without the consent of the electors.

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52
Q

When was Luther’s New Testament published?

A

1522

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53
Q

Why did poor harvests impact peasants incredibly badly?

A

Because a poor harvest could mean hunger, and one in four harvests failed. A poor harvest also meant high food prices and inflation.

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54
Q

When was the Peasant’s revolt?

A

1524-25

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55
Q

What was a burgher?

A

A citizen of a town or city who was also a member of the trading or mercantile class.

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56
Q

Jakob Fugger, whom Leo X had contacted about raising funds for St Peter’s Basilica via indulgences, decided to link the sale with the needs of another client. Who was this?

A

Albert of Brandenburg, the brother of the Margrave of Brandenburg, who was one of the seven electors.

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57
Q

What were the roles of the archbishops?

A

In charge of a ‘province’- there were six archbishops in the empire, and the three most senior were electors.

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58
Q

Why was pope Leo X concerned about Charles becoming HRE?

A

If Charles added the empire to his Aragonese inheritance, he would dominate the Italian peninsula.

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59
Q

When did Charles inherit both Aragon (including its lands in Italy) and Castile (with its lands in the New World)?

A

In 1516, upon the death of Ferdinand of Aragon.

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60
Q

What was lack of respect for the Renaissance popes closely linked to?

A

Reports circulating Germany about the behaviour of the clergy in Rome, said to be leading lives of luxury and making a mockery of Christianity. Many of these reports were based on eyewitness accounts from pilgrims and scholars.

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61
Q

How did the Church determine even what people could eat?

A

On three days a week, and on the eve of every holy day, and during the 40 days of Lent, no meat could be eaten. In Lent, additional things such as butter were forbidden.

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62
Q

Give an example of how even a trivial matter regarding the Church’s economic power could cause resentment.

A

No butter could be eaten during Lent- this would be easy to follow in Rome, where olive oil was used to cook, but in Germany butter was the fat used to cook with, olive oil only available to import at a high cost. Of course, it was possible to buy a dispensation to eat butter- yet another irritating example of Church exploitation.

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63
Q

When was the sack of Rome?

A

1527

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64
Q

Anger at clerical abuses and the power and privileges of the church prior to 1517 added to the tension. What fuelled this?

A

Humanist literature, deep piety and a belief that the world was about to end.

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65
Q

Why did Erasmus want everyone to read the Bible?

A

Because he believed that study, inner spirituality, prayer and meditation were all more important to being a good Christian than mindless activities such as pilgrimages.

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66
Q

Who was Ulrich of Württemberg?

A

A Duke who was so unpleasant and egotistical that he taxed his people to the point of revolt.

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67
Q

Why was Charles V the most powerful man in Europe by age 19, almost by accident?

A

As the oldest surviving male on both sides of his family, his inheritance at a young age was vast.

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68
Q

Which three ways did Humanists play a key role before 1517?

A

They pioneered the practice of trying to create the purest translations possible for the Bible, they promoted the idea that a good Christian life should be based more on a deep personal understanding of the Bible than just what the Church said, and they openly criticised and made fun of the church.

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69
Q

When was the Death of Luther?

A

1546

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70
Q

What happened at an imperial diet?

A

The emperor’s propositions were read out. The colleges met separately to discuss and vote on these. The colleges then passed their views and recommendations back to the emperor, while also raising grievances or concerns of their own. If the emperor and the diet were in agreement, their conclusions were published as a ‘recess’ applicable to all, even if they hadn’t attended or voted.

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71
Q

How can the spiritual energy of many wealthy, literate Germans be seen in 1500?

A

In the high sales of books written by humanists; these books suggested ways to be a better Christian, and their popularity shows that interest in religion had never been greater.

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72
Q

Leadership of the HRE was provided by the Holy Roman Emperor, elected by the seven electors. In theory, any prince could stand for election. Why was this not true?

A

The position had gone to a member of the Habsburg family since 1437, which made sense because, as the biggest landowners in the empire, the Habsburgs were the only family rich enough for the post.

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73
Q

What is an indulgence?

A

A certificate, sold with the approval of the Church, offering a specified reduction in the time (which might be millions of years) that a soul spent in purgatory. The indulgence effectively forgave the sins of the purchaser.

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74
Q

Why did the personal behaviour of the Renaissance popes, Alexander VI, Julius II and Leo X cause anti-papalism?

A

It was almost completely at odds with their claim to be the spiritual leaders of Christendom.

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75
Q

How can the inability of the Emperor Charles V to silence Luther be explained?

A

By the political makeup of the empire; he did not have sufficient power to do much anyway, while to get elected he had been forced to make important concessions to the electors that effectively tied his hands even more.

76
Q

How large was the Holy Roman Empire in 1500?

A

It was vast, covering all of central Europe, including modern Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Belgium, the Netherlands, the Czech Republic and Slovakia, as well as land that is now in eastern France, western Poland and northern Italy.

77
Q

What was the problem with the fact that, three days a week, and on the eve of every holy day, and during the 40 days of Lent, no meat could be eaten?

A

This made life difficult for those who lived far from rivers or the sea, and it was almost ruinous for butchers.

78
Q

What does the fact that even old works criticising the clergy and advocating reform were popular best-sellers show?

A

Just how gripped Germany was by thoughts that a ‘holy man’ would appear to reform the church and rid it of abuses, in preparation for the Last Judgement.

79
Q

Why was von Hutten, a fierce German nationalist, angered by Rome?

A

In his opinion, Rome took advance of the fears and superstitions of ordinary Germans, and the way Rome bled Germany dry of funds.

80
Q

Perhaps because of the vacuum of central authority in the empire, there was a feeling that the Church had more power in Germany than anywhere else in Europe, and that Rome was exploiting Germany. What did this mean for those like Luther?

A

Anyone who challenged this exploitation would have a favourable reception.

81
Q

What might explain the fact that the renaissance pope Alexander VI (1492-1503) commanded little respect in Italy?

A

He was Spanish, involved in poisoning, murder and extortion, and his behaviour was extremely ‘unpapal’; he had seven children.

82
Q

Why did tenants on Church lands resent the prince bishops?

A

The Church’s lands were controlled by bishops, who behaved as secular rulers. Tenants on these lands resented the speedy way rents were put up by their uncaring, absentee ecclesiastical landlords, especially in a time of inflation.

83
Q

From 1493-1519, Maximilian I was HRE. What did he do during his reign?

A

He was indecisive and guilty of flitting from one scheme to another. If he focused on anything it was improving his family’s fortunes. He established a dynasty through them that lasted 400 years, but failed to strengthen his position as emperor.

84
Q

What were the warnings seen to show that God’s displeasure with man’s sinfulness was reaching a climax in the early 16th century?

A

A terrible new disease, the pox or syphilis, had appeared in the 1490s. Other ill omens circulated such as comets and ‘monstrous births’ (babies or animals born with significant abnormalities).

85
Q

What did the Duke of Mantua say about the death of Alexander VI?

A

“He was carried to the grave with little honour, his body being dragged from the bed… by a porter, who fastened a cord to his feet, because nobody would touch him.”

86
Q

How was the HRE ruled?

A

Each state and city ruled itself and fiercely guarded its individual liberties and privileges. To satisfy the need for some sort of central organisation and a single leader with an umbrella-like overview, they needed some imperial institutions and wanted an emperor.

87
Q

What did obedience to the church involve?

A

Attending church, taking part in an annual cycle of religious ceremonies such as lent, obeying the Ten Commandments, performing ‘good works’ such as going on pilgrimages, showing devotion to the Virgin Mary and the saints, as well as participating in the seven sacraments.

88
Q

What was ordination?

A

A person who took holy orders became a priest, monk or nun.

89
Q

When was Luther in Wartburg Castle?

A

1521-22

90
Q

Who were the Brethren of the Common Life?

A

A Dutch movement that believed in a simple life of prayer, poetry and piety.

91
Q

How many imperial diets met between 1501-55?

A

28

92
Q

When was the Peace of Passau?

A

1552

93
Q

What has historian Bernd Moeller argued?

A

That the work of humanists was crucial to the later success of Luther: ‘No Humanism, No Reformation’

94
Q

How did Germany’s sense of national identity help Charles in his quest to become Holy Roman Emperor?

A

The other candidate, Francis I, was French, and therefore unwelcome in the empire given its new sense of national identity and its older sense of xenophobia.

95
Q

Though he might have been a vital influence on Luther, Erasmus eventually rejected Luther completely. In 1520, Cardinal Aleander reputedly said ‘Erasmus laid the egg which Luther hatched’. What was Erasmus’ reply?

A

“I laid a hen’s egg, but Luther hatched a bird of quite different kind”.

96
Q

What was baptism?

A

All babies were born with ‘original sin’, which could only be removed by being baptised by a priest. During the ceremony, the baby was received into the Christian community.

97
Q

What was confirmation?

A

This ceremony confirmed the baptism and took place when a child was about nine.

98
Q

What was the order of importance within the Catholic church?

A

The pope, Cardinals, Archbishops, Bishops, Priests.

99
Q

What was the most deeply resented action of the Church?

A

The financial demands; everyone resented the price put on the means to salvation. They had to pay for baptisms, marriage, burials, confession, seeing relics, indulgences.

100
Q

Erasmus was originally destined to be a monk, but he rapidly decided that it was not the career for him. What did he do instead?

A

He went to study at the University of Paris.

101
Q

Give an example of Erasmus’ serious works.

A

‘The Handbook of the Christian Soldier’ of 1501 advocated a return to a purer, simpler form of Christianity, focused on the Bible and free of all the unnecessary practices and ignorant superstitions that had accumulated over the centuries. His ‘Greek New Testament’ of 1516 was intended as a tool to help men achieve this

102
Q

When was Philip of Hesse and the bigamy scandal?

A

1540

103
Q

Renaissance Pope Leo X (1513-21) had less vicious vices than his predecessors: he was a cultured, easygoing man and a significant patron of the arts. What, then, was his ‘flaw’?

A

He was a spendthrift. On being made pope, he allegedly said to his brother: ‘God has given us the papacy, let us enjoy it’. To replenish his treasury, he created and sold off to the highest bidders 1353 offices in the Church. Simony on this scale scandalised Europe.

104
Q

Why was it that some of Luther’s greatest support was to come from the educated elite of the towns and cities? These were the very people that were thriving in the early 16th century.

A

For one, those who lived by the great rivers had the advantage of knowing more quickly what was going on in the world. Furthermore, elite town dwellers were far more likely to be literate, and therefore more likely to buy and read bokos and pamphlets, absorbing the ideas of the humanists.

105
Q

When were the three pamphlets published?

A

1521

106
Q

When was the death of Maximilian and Charles’ subsequent inheritance of the Habsburg lands in the empire, including Austria, Styria, Carniola and Tyrol?

A

1519

107
Q

Why, arguably, was Germany more united in 1517 than it had been for centuries?

A

A great deal had been done to improve regional and central government. The circles had been set up, the Swabian League and the central courts had been established, the diet was meeting regularly and included colleges for lesser princes and cities. Even a new title -The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation- had been adopted, reflecting a new sense of ‘German-ness’. This new sense of National identity was helped by another political development: the loss in the previous 50 years of many non-German parts of the Empire.

108
Q

How did Charles becoming emperor help Luther?

A

Charles’ vast inheritance came with multiple problems and enemies, so he rarely had time to focus on the empire’s issues.

109
Q

Why did inflation have a negative impact on urban labourers?

A

Because their wages rarely kept up with food prices.

110
Q

Why was criticism of abuses in the church not new?

A

For several generations there had been prophecies that a ‘holy man’ would appear to reform the church and rid it of abuses, in preparation for the Last Judgement.

111
Q

What were the roles of the priests?

A

In charge of a parish, the smallest subsection of a diocese.

112
Q

Renaissance prince Julius II had two passions: art and war. What did he do majorly regarding art?

A

He commissioned Michelangelo to paint the Sistine Chapel ceiling and set in motion plans to restore Rome

113
Q

What happened in the early 16th century due to a new sense of National Identity and the loss in the previous 50 years of many non-German parts of the Empire?

A

German was increasingly used as the sole language for business and administration, while German history became a new focus for attention in universities. The double-headed eagle, symbol of the empire, was increasingly displayed with pride

114
Q

What were enclosed monastic orders?

A

Orders such as Benedictines, Cistercians and Carthusians were monks who lived in monasteries, with little contact with the outside world as they prayed for salvation.

115
Q

What was the deal cut between Jakob Fugger and Albert?

A

Fugger would lend Albert the money he needed, Albert would sell the indulgences and funnel half the money back to Fugger, sending the other half to Rome.

116
Q

Why were north Germany’s Baltic ports in decline by the 16th century?

A

Because, in 1473, the Baltic’s herring shoals had moved to the North Sea. This was a disaster for the Baltic ports as they depended on herring fishing for their livelihood.

117
Q

Who was Ulrich von Hutten?

A

An imperial knight, a scholar and a poet. He was a humanist.

118
Q

How did the Swabian league help Charles in his quest to become Holy Roman Emperor?

A

They surrounded the town where the electors were meeting and made it clear that they favoured him over Francis.

119
Q

When was Charles V elected Holy Roman Emperor?

A

1519

120
Q

How did Humanists pioneer the practice of trying to create the purest translations possible for the Bible?

A

They went back to the oldest sources they could find in their search for accuracy. In doing so, they uncovered the fact that the Vulgate Bible then in use contained errors. Erasmus’ Greek testament was condemned by Rome, but Luther was inspired.

121
Q

What did Albert have to do to become Archbishop of Mainz?

A

Under normal circumstances, Albert would have had to surrender his other positions to become Archbishop of Mainz. If he managed to pay Rome a large sum, he would be granted a dispensation.

122
Q

When was the Augsburg Confession?

A

1530

123
Q

How did the humanist Ulrich Von Hutten openly criticise and make fun of the church?

A

He co-authored a satirical volume of ‘Letters of Obscure Men’. The ‘Letters’ mocked clerical ignorance, idleness, hypocrisy and immorality,

124
Q

What did historian John Lotherington say on the subject of anti-papalism?

A

“Anti papalism did not automatically mean the rejection of Catholic doctrine. But it did mean that the enemy of the Pope might well be seen as the friend of the German people.”

125
Q

Who were the Curia?

A

The civil service of the Church, based in Rome.

126
Q

For miners, manufacturers and merchants in Germany, the early 16th century was a good time. If there were economic frustrations, where were they directed?

A

They were directed towards their inept patrician city councils, which were often totally out of touch with the latest economic developments and yet thwarted all attempts by newly wealthy and upwardly mobile burghers to share their power. Equally frustrating were the myriad borders that had to be crossed as one traded in the empire, with customs duties to pay at each one.

127
Q

What were renaissance prince Julius II’s (1503-13) passions?

A

Art and war. He commissioned Michelangelo to paint the Sistine Chapel ceiling, set in motion plans to restore Rome and established the Swiss Guard. Acting more like an European Prince, he made and unmade alliances with Maximilian and led his own troops into battle, a fact that shocked Europe almost as much as his rumoured homosexuality.

128
Q

When was Charles declared of age to rule the Burgundian lands of the Netherlands, Luxembourg and Franche-Comté?

A

In 1515

129
Q

In 1514, the Archbishopric of Mainz fell vacant. Why was this a real prize?

A

Anyone becoming Archbishop of Mainz also became an elector, the primate of Germany and imperial chancellor.

130
Q

What are the seven sacraments?

A

Baptism, confirmation, penance, Eucharist/Communion, Marriage, Extreme Unction / last rites and Ordination

131
Q

When were the Leipzig debates?

A

1519

132
Q

Politically, what did its lack of a strong central authority mean for Germany?

A

That it was more open than any other state to financial exploitation by Rome. This helps to explain the level of nationalistic anti-papal anger that existed even prior to 1517.

133
Q

In 1497, Celtis translated into German and published a new edition of Tacitus’ ‘Germania’. How was this groundwork for Luther’s success?

A

Though he had completely different motives for his protest, Luther’s anti-Rome tone found receptive audience already enthused with pro-German, anti-Italian feeling. Luther’s success, therefore, was due in part to the groundwork done by Celtis.

134
Q

How did Charles signing the Capitulation of 1519 help Luther?

A

In signing the capitulation, Charles weakened the position of the emperor still further: he could only work through the electors and the diet to deal with Luther, and he was honourable enough to abide by that agreement for 30 years.

135
Q

The imperial diet consisted of three ‘colleges’ or estates. What were they?

A

One for the electors, a second for the other ecclesiastical and secular princes, and a third for representatives for the imperial cities, though the latter did not achieve voting rights until 1648.

136
Q

How did Leo X go about raising funds for St Peter’s Basilica via indulgences?

A

He sought the cooperation of the most influential banker in Germany- Jakob Fugger of Augsburg.

137
Q

What were the main differences between Erasmus and von Hutten?

A

Whereas Erasmus was European in his outlook, von Hutten was a fierce German nationalist. Where Erasmus remained a firm believer in the institution of the papacy, von Hutten’s ideal was probably a German Church without the pope. Where Erasmus rejected Luther, Hutten soon supported him, though chiefly because of Luther’s anti-papal stance.

138
Q

What was Heresy?

A

Heresy was a belief contrary to the official doctrine of the Church. Heretics were normally burned to death.

139
Q

Why did population growth negatively impact peasants?

A

Because the custom of subdividing land equally between all sons led to smaller and smaller landholdings.

140
Q

When was the Edict of Worms?

A

1521

141
Q

The two courts of appeal were the Imperial Chamber Court and the Imperial Aulic Court. What was the Imperial Aulic Court?

A

The Imperial Aulic Court was established in 1498 because Maximilian resented the amount of princely power in the Imperial Chamber Court. It was based in Vienna, in the heart of Habsburg territories.

142
Q

Renaissance prince Julius II had two passions: art and war. What did he do majorly regarding war?

A

He established the Swiss Guard and, acting more like an European Prince, he made and unmade alliances with Maximilian and led his own troops into battle, a fact that shocked Europe almost as much as his rumoured homosexuality.

143
Q

How did the electors choose Charles in terms of his inheritance?

A

Because he was a Habsburg, he was the greatest landowner in the empire, and would be the most likely to defend Germany against external threats, especially from the Ottoman Empire. Also, given his vast inheritance, he was likely to be absent most of the time, and therefore less likely to challenge the prince’s power.

144
Q

Sales of indulgences were good, but Tetzel’s aggressive marketing tactics did not win universal approval. By October 1517, he had reached the borders of Electoral Saxony, where the people reacted in three very different ways. What were these three?

A

Frederick the Wise refused Tetzel permission to enter. His subjects flooded over the border anyways, keen as they were to purchase the powerful indulgence. Luther wrote a list of 95 theses against indulgences.

145
Q

What does the historian Alister McGrath say about the resentment felt towards the Church’s financial demands?

A

“The clergy came to be seen as exploiting the new interest in religion without contributing to it.”

146
Q

When was the Recess of Speyer?

A

1526

147
Q

Why were the electors worried about allowing Charles V success in the imperial election of 1519?

A

The electors were concerned that he would use German resources to help him solve problems in his other territories. Spain was then in revolt, so such a thought was not out of the question.

148
Q

What was Erasmus’ reputation based on?

A

In part on his biblical scholarship and mastery of Latin and Greek, and in part on his sense of humour.

149
Q

In his studies, what was Celtis particularly excited by?

A

By the rediscovery in 1455 of a text called ‘Germania’ written by the Ancient Roman historian Tacitus in AD98. ‘Germania’ showed how most of ancient Germany -an allegedly honourable, brave, pure Germany- had avoided conquest by the Roman Empire.

150
Q

To the west of the River Elbe, how did landlords compensate for inflation in a way that harmed peasants?

A

They increased rents, declared hunting and fishing illegal, and enclosed land previously used for common grazing.

151
Q

What does historian Ann Laurence say on the topic of clerical abuses?

A

“Enthusiastic lay piety was not matched by a comparable movement of spiritual renewal among the clergy.

152
Q

How did von Hutten support Luther?

A

He backed Franz von Sickingen and other imperial knights in a demonstration of military support for Luther, an ill-judged attack on the lands of the Archbishop of Trier in 1522. The attack failed; von Hutten fled and died in obscurity the following year from syphilis, on an island in Lake Zurich. His great-nephew, Philip Melanchthon, became a leading protestant reformer in Wittenberg.

153
Q

What is the background of Desiderius Erasmus?

A

The illegitimate son of a priest, he was born in Rotterdam and was educated at a school in Denver. Here, the teachers belonged to the Brethren of the Common Life, and it is possible to see their influence on his later life.

154
Q

What was the ‘tithe’?

A

The fact that one-tenth of every person’s income or produce had to go to the Church.

155
Q

How did the imperial election of 1519 help Luther’s situation with the pope?

A

Hoping to win the goodwill of the elector Frederick the Wise, the pope had agreed that Luther did not have to travel to Rome for interrogation, where he may well have been executed.

156
Q

In Germany during a period of rapid change, the lack of a strong central authority in the empire stayed the same. Why did this matter?

A

Because it meant that Germany was more open than any other state in Europe to financial exploitation by Rome. It also mattered because it meant that the emperor lacked the power to implement, or indeed to stop, change.

157
Q

When was Charles V elected Holy Roman Emperor?

A

1519.

158
Q

What was St Peter’s Basilica?

A

The most important building in the Roman Catholic Church- it contained the tomb of St Peter, disciple of Christ and the First pope. The original structure had been built in the 4th century by the Emperor Constantine on the site of Peter’s crucifixion.

159
Q

When did Charles V abdicate?

A

1555

160
Q

What were the similarities between von Hutten and Erasmus?

A

Like Erasmus, he advocated the importance of studying the Bible free from all the interpretations layered on by Rome. Also like Erasmus, he was a strong critic of clerical abuses and he was probably one of the co-authors of ‘Letters of Obscure Men’.

161
Q

How did Leo X try to prevent Charles from becoming HRE?

A

He tried to persuade the elector Frederick the Wise of Saxony to stand as a sort of compromise candidate, but Frederick declined.

162
Q

When was Luther excommunicated?

A

1521

163
Q

To the east of the River Elbe, how did landlords compensate for inflation in a way that harmed peasants?

A

Landlords reintroduced serfdom- they forced peasants to work harder and longer for no money, and forbade them to move.

164
Q

What was the key institution of central government in the HRE?

A

The imperial diet.

165
Q

When were the Schmalkaldic wars?

A

1546-47

166
Q

What is the background of Albert of Brandenburg, the man with whom Jakob Fugger linked the sale of indulgences?

A

Aged 23, he was ambitiously accumulating power, having already become Archbishop of Magdeburg and Bishop of Halberstadt.

167
Q

When was Luther’s debate with Cajetan?

A

1518

168
Q

What was the ‘Reformatio Sigismundi’?

A

Written anonymously c1438, it was published in eight editions between 1476-1522. Written in German, it was probably the most widely circulated reform paper of its time. It prophesied that one day, a simple priest would come to ‘bring the Christian Church into the best possible order’

169
Q

Worried about Charles’ potential strength, what did the electors make a condition of election?

A

That he agreed to sign the Capitulation of 1519

170
Q

When was the Regensburg Colloquy?

A

1541

171
Q

How did the rapid German population growth in the 16th century?

A

Along the Rhine and in north Germany, demand for more food led to a boom in textile production and the manufacturing sectors of towns like Augsburg and Munich. This, in turn, led to a boom in trade along the great rivers criss-crossing the empire, with the most successful towns located near these rivers.

172
Q

How were the religious needs of the educated urban laity more in line with official Church doctrine?

A

They were far more concerned with the afterlife, and wanted reassurance that their souls would achieve eternal salvation.

173
Q

When was the siege of Metz?

A

1552

174
Q

When was the Battle of Mühlberg?

A

1546-47

175
Q

As a nationalist, what did it seem logical for Celtis to think about with regards to Rome?

A

It seemed logical for him to ask why Germany now seemed almost totally under the control of Rome.

176
Q

What about the courts of appeal shows that there was a measure of distrust between the princes and Maximilian?

A

Two rival courts of appeal existed by 1500.

177
Q

What was the role of the pope?

A

Head of the Church and supreme in all matters of faith, including interpreting the Bible.

178
Q

Why were clerical privileges a source of real resentment?

A

They were exempt from paying taxes and contributing to defence funds.

179
Q

The success of Erasmus’ satire was extraordinary: by 1536, the ‘Colloquies’ had run to over 300 editions in 18 years. Why was he so popular?

A

Erasmus expressed brilliantly what people were thinking, and educated Europe laughed.

180
Q

The religious needs of peasants largely involved getting God’s help now. How was this largely met?

A

Via ‘sacramentals’, a huge array of semi-magical practices, rituals and beliefs, such as a loaf of bread baked on Good Friday helping to avert a fire.

181
Q

What were the roles of the bishops?

A

There were about 40 bishops in the HRE. Unlike their counterparts elsewhere in Europe, the HRE’s bishops were both pastoral leaders and secular rules of vast estates (these bishops controlled about one-sixth of Germany). They were often called ‘prince bishops’.

182
Q

In 1503, what did renaissance pope Julius II (1503-13) say of renaissance pope Alexander VI (1492-1503)?

A

“He desecrated the Holy Church as none before. He usurped the papal power by the devil’s aid and I forbid under the pain of excommunication anyone to speak or think of Borgia again. His name and memory must be forgotten.”

183
Q

Luther made his initial protest in 1517. By 1521, what did one observer report?

A

That ‘Nine out of ten cry Luther’.

184
Q

When was the first meeting of the Council of Trent?

A

1545

185
Q

Why did the electors choose Charles in terms of material gain?

A

Charles handed out the largest bribes (850,000 florins). This was money he had to borrow.