Conditioning and Learning: Associative and Cognitive Learning Flashcards
1
Q
Learning
A
is a relatively permanent change in behaviour due to experience
2
Q
Associative learning
A
The formation of simple associations between various stimuli and responses.
3
Q
cognitive learning
A
Higher-level learning involving thinking, knowing, understanding, and anticipation.
4
Q
Antecedents
A
Events that precede a response.
5
Q
Consequences
A
Effects that follow a response.
6
Q
Reflex
A
An innate, automatic response to a stimulus; for example, an eyeblink.
7
Q
Classical conditioning
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A form of learning in which reflex responses are associated with new stimuli
8
Q
classical conditioning,
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a stimulus that does not produce a response is paired with a stimulus that does elicit a response. after many such pairings, the stimulus that previously had no effect begins to produce a response. in the example shown, a horn precedes a puff of air to the eye. eventually, the horn alone will produce an eyeblink. in operant conditioning, a response that is followed by a reinforcing consequence becomes more likely to occur on future occasions. in
the example shown, a dog learns to sit up when it hears a whistle.
9
Q
For Example, Ashleigh, who is 3, runs to the front door whenever Daddy gets home. She has recently begun running as soon as she hears his truck pull into the driveway. She has associated running to the door with the antecedent sound of the truck.Effects that follow a behaviour are consequences
A
antecedents.
10
Q
A cognitive map
A
is an internal representation of an area, such as a maze, city, or campus
11
Q
Knowledge of results (KR)
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Informational feedback
12
Q
Feedback
A
Information returned to a person about the effects a response has had; also known as knowledge of results.
13
Q
Cognitive map
A
Internal images or other mental represen- tations of an area (maze, city, campus, and so forth) that underlie an ability to choose alternative paths to the same goal.
14
Q
Latent learning
A
Learning that occurs without obvious rein- forcement and that remains unexpressed until reinforcement is provided.
15
Q
Operant conditioning
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Learning based on the consequences of responding.
16
Q
Programmed instruction
A
Any learning format that presents information in small amounts, gives immediate practice, and provides continuous feedback to learners.
17
Q
Rote learning
A
Learning that takes place mechanically, through repetition and memorization, or by learning rules
18
Q
Discovery learning
A
Learning based on insight and understanding
19
Q
Model (in learning) .
A
A person who serves as an example in observational learning
20
Q
Observational learning (modelling)
A
learning achieved bywatching and imitating the actions of another or noting the consequences of those actions.
21
Q
psychologists use the term ____________________ to describe observational learning.
A
modelling
22
Q
Learning that suddenly appears when a reward or incentive for performance is given is called
a. discovery learning b. latent learning c. rote learning d. reminiscence
A
d
23
Q
Knowledge of results also is known as
A
feedback
24
Q
the concept of forming an association applies to both a. associative and cognitive learning b. latent and discovery learning c. classical and operant conditioning
d. imitation and modelling
A
c
25
if a model is successful, or rewarded, the model’s behaviour is a. less difficult to reproduce b. less likely to be attended to c. more likely to be imitated
d. more subject to positive transfer
c
26
Children who observed a live adult behave aggressively became more aggressive; those who observed movie and cartoon aggression did not. T or F?
f
27
classical conditioning
, studied by pavlov, occurs when a neutral stimulus (NS) is associated with an unconditioned stimulus (uS)
28
Vicarious classical conditioning
Classical conditioning brought about by observing another person react to a par- ticular stimulus
29
Reducing fear or anxiety by repeatedly exposing a person to emotional stimuli while the person is deeply relaxed.
Vicarious classical conditioning
Systematic desensitization
30
An emotional response that has been linked to a previously nonemotional stimulus by classical conditioning
Conditioned emotional response (CeR
31
Informational view
Perspective that explains learning in terms of information imparted by events in the environment
32
expectancy
An anticipation concerning future events or relationships
33
extinction
The weakening of a conditioned response through removal of reinforcement.
34
expectancy
An anticipation concerning future events or relationships.
35
Spontaneous recovery
The reappearance of a learned response after its apparent extinction.
36
The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to, but not identical to, a conditioned stimulus
Stimulus generalization
37
Stimulus discrimination
The learned ability to respond dif- ferently to similar stimuli.
38
Higher-order conditioning
Classical conditioning in which a conditioned stimulus is used to reinforce further learning— that is, a CS is used as if it were a US.
39
acquisition
The period in conditioning during which a response is reinforced.
40
Conditioned response (CR)
A learned response elicited by a conditioned stimulus
41
A stimulus that evokes a response because it has been repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned response
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
42
Neutral stimulus (NS)
A stimulus that does not evoke a response.
43
Unconditioned response (UR)
An innate reflex response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus.
44
Unconditioned stimulus (US)
A stimulus innately capable of eliciting a response
45
A form of learning in which reflex responses are associated with new stimuli
Classical conditioning
46
Through stimulus generalization, stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus also will produce a response. generalization gives way to stimulus discrimination when an organism learns to respond to one stimulus but not to similar stimuli.
Through stimulus generalization, stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus also will produce a response. generalization gives way to stimulus discrimination when an organism learns to respond to one stimulus but not to similar stimuli.
47
When the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly followed by the unconditioned stimulus, an association between the two is established and strengthened.
When the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly followed by the unconditioned stimulus, an association between the two is established and strengthened.
48
You smell the odour of cookies being baked and your mouth waters. apparently, the odour of cookies is a __________ and your salivation is a ______________.
cS,cr
49
The informational view says that classical conditioning is based
on changes in mental ______________ about the cS and uS.
expectancies
50
after you have acquired a conditioned response, it may be weakened by repeated
presentation of the cS alone
51
When a conditioned stimulus is used to reinforce the learning of a second conditioned stimulus, higher-order conditioning has occurred. T or F?
T
52
psychologists theorize that many phobias begin when a cer generalizes to other, similar situations. T or F?
T
53
Three-year-old Josh sees a neighbour’s dog chase his five-year- old sister. Now Josh is as afraid of the dog as his sister is. Josh’s fear is a result of
b. vicarious conditioning
54
Operant conditioning
(Instrumental learning) Learning based on the consequences of responding
55
law of effect
Responses that lead to desirable effects are repeated; those that produce undesirable results are not.
56
Operant reinforcer
Any event that reliably increases the probability or frequency of responses it follows
57
Operant conditioning chamber
(Skinner box) An apparatus designed to study operant conditioning in animals.
58
Response chain
A series of actions that eventually lead to reinforcement.
59
Superstitious behaviour
A behaviour is repeated because it seems to produce reinforcement, even though it is actually unnecessary.
60
Shaping
Gradually moulding responses to a final desired pattern
61
Operant extinction
The weakening or disappearance of a nonreinforced operant response
62
Positive reinforcement
Occurs when a response is followed by a reward or other positive event
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Occurs when a response is followed by an end to discomfort or by the removal of an unpleasant event.
Negative reinforcement
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Positive punishment (punishment)
Any event that follows a response and decreases its likelihood of occurring again; the process of suppressing a response.
65
Negative punishment (response cost)
Removal of a positive reinforcer after a response is made.
66
Stimulus control
Stimuli present when an operant response is acquired tend to control when and where the response is made.
67
Stimuli present
when an operant response is acquired tends to control when and where the response is made.
68
Operant stimulus discrimination
The tendency to make an operant response when stimuli previously associated with reward are present and to withhold the response when stimuli associated with nonreward are present.
69
Discriminative stimuli
Stimuli that precede rewarded and nonrewarded responses in operant conditioning.
70
responses in operant conditioning are __________ or ___________, whereas those in classical conditioning are passive, _________, or __________ responses
voluntary or emitted, involuntary or elicited 2
71
changing the rules in small steps so that an animal (or person) is gradually trained to respond as desired is called
shaping
72
Extinction in operant conditioning also is subject to __________ of a response
spontaneous recovery
73
positive reinforcers increase the rate of responding, and negative reinforcers decrease it. T or F?
f
74
responding tends to occur in the presence of discriminative stimuli associated with reinforcement and tends not to occur in the presence of discriminative stimuli associated with nonreinforcement. T or F?
T
75
Altered state of consciousness (ASC)
A condition of awareness dis-
| tinctly different in quality or pattern from waking consciousness.
76
Hypnosis
An altered state of consciousness characterized by narrowed attention and increased suggestibility
77
Meditation
A mental exercise for producing relaxation or heightened awareness.
78
Mindfulness
A state of open, nonjudgmental awareness of current experience
79
In ernest hilgard’s dissociative state theory of hypnosis, awareness is split between normal consciousness
a. disinhibition b. autosuggestion
c. memory d. the hidden observer
D
80
```
changes in the quality and pattern of mental activity define a(n)
reflect
think Critically
a. eeG b. rem
c. SIDS d. aSc
```
asc
Altered state of consciousness (ASC)
81
Which of the following can most definitely be achieved with hypnosis?
a. unusual strength b. pain relief
c. improved memory d. sleep-like brain waves
3. b
82
The focus of attention in concentrative meditation is “open,” or expansive. T or F?
f
83
mantras are words said silently to oneself to end a session of meditation. T or F?
f
84
The most immediate benefit of meditation appears to be its capacity for producing the relaxation response. T or F?
t
85
Beta waves
Small, fast brain waves associated with being awake and alert
86
Large, slow brain waves associated with relaxation and falling asleep
Alpha waves
87
Light sleep
(Stage 1 sleep) Marked by small, irregular brain waves and some alpha waves
88
Sleep spindles
Distinctive bursts of brain-wave activity that indicate a person is asleep.
89
Delta waves
Large, slow brain waves that occur in deeper sleep (Stages 3 and 4
90
Deep sleep (Stage 4 sleep)
The deepest form of normal sleep
91
REM sleep
Sleep marked by rapid eye movements and a return to Stage 1 EEG patterns.
92
Non-REM (NREM) sleep
Non–rapid eye movement sleep character- istic of Stages 1, 2, 3, and 4.
93
Somnambulists
People who sleepwalk; occurs during NREM sleep
94
Nightmare
A bad dream that occurs during REM sleep.
95
Night terror
A state of panic during NREM sleep
96
Sleep apnea
Repeated interruption of breathing during sleep
97
Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
The sudden, unexplained death of an apparently healthy infant.
98
Narcolepsy
A sudden, irresistible sleep attack
99
Psychodynamic theory
Any theory of behaviour that emphasizes internal conflicts, motives, and unconscious forces.
100
Dream symbols
Images in dreams that serve as visible signs of hidden ideas, desires, impulses, emotions, relationships, and so forth.
101
Neurocognitive dream theory
Proposal that dreams reflect everyday waking thoughts and emotions.
102
Latent content (of dreams)
The hidden or symbolic meaning of a dream, as revealed by dream interpretation and analysis
103
Activation-synthesis hypothesis
An attempt to explain how dream content is affected by motor commands in the brain that occur during sleep but are not carried out
104
24.2.1 sleep occurs in four stages. stage 1 is light sleep, and stage 4 is deep sleep. The sleeper alternates between stages 1 and 4 (passing through stages 2 and 3) several times each night.
■ 24.2.2 according to the dual-process hypothesis, non-rem (nrem) sleep “refreshes” the body and brain, and rapid eye movement (rem) sleep helps form lasting memories.
■ 24.2.3 nrem sleep brings overall brain activation levels down, thus calming the brain
24.2.1 sleep occurs in four stages. stage 1 is light sleep, and stage 4 is deep sleep. The sleeper alternates between stages 1 and 4 (passing through stages 2 and 3) several times each night. ■ 24.2.2 according to the dual-process hypothesis, non-rem (nrem) sleep “refreshes” the body and brain, and rapid eye movement (rem) sleep helps form lasting memories.
■ 24.2.3 nrem sleep brings overall brain activation levels down, thus calming the brain
105
Depressant
A substance that decreases activity in the body and nervous system
106
Psychoactive drug
A substance capable of altering attention, memory, judgment, time sense, self-control, mood, or perception
107
Psychological dependence
Drug dependence that is based primarily on emotional or psychological needs.
108
Anhedonia
An inability to feel pleasure.
109
Tranquillizer
A drug that lowers anxiety and reduces tension.
110
Hallucinogen
A substance that alters or distorts sensory impressions.
111
Dream processes
Mental filters that hide the true meanings of dreams.
112
Primary reinforcers
Nonlearned reinforcers; usually those that satisfy physiological needs.
113
Secondary reinforcer
A learned reinforcer; often one that gains reinforcing properties by association with a primary reinforcer
114
Token reinforcer
A tangible secondary reinforcer such as money, gold stars, poker chips, and the like
115
Social reinforcer
Reinforcement based on receiving atten- tion, approval, or affection from another person
116
Continuous reinforcement
A pattern in which a reinforcer follows every correct response.
117
Partial reinforcement
A pattern in which only a portion of all responses are reinforced
118
Partial reinforcement effect
Responses acquired with partial reinforcement are more resistant to extinction.
119
Schedules of reinforcement
Rules or plans for deter- mining which responses will be reinforced.
120
Fixed ratio (FR) schedule
A set number of correct responses must be made to get a reinforcer. For example, a reinforcer is given for every four correct responses.
