Concepts in IR

Question 1

What theory does Gender essentialism correspond to?

Answer 1

Feminism

Question 2

What does Gender essentialism entail?

Answer 2

The belief in inherent traits based on biological sex, e.g., men as violent, women as caring.

Essentialist views can lead to dangerous oversights in war contexts.

Question 3

What theory does the informal economy and domestic labour correspond to?

Answer 3

Feminism

Question 4

What does the informal economy and domestic labour entail?

Answer 4

The informal economy is one that is not taxed and is unregulated. Jobs like dog walking, babysitting and cleaning services could be informal.

Domestic labour is work done in the home without pay or other typical securities of employment.

Question 5

What does the sexual division of labour entail?

Answer 5

Historical shifts in employment roles for men and women; jobs are socially redefined as “feminine” or “masculine.”
Economic roles reflect societal power imbalances rather than inherent capacities.

Question 6

What theory does Gender essentialism correspond to?

Answer 6

Feminism

Question 7

What does Gender essentialism entail?

Answer 7

The belief in inherent traits based on biological sex, e.g., men as violent, women as caring.

Essentialist views can lead to dangerous oversights in war contexts.

Question 8

What theory does the informal economy and domestic labour correspond to?

Answer 8

Feminism

Question 9

What does the informal economy and domestic labour entail?

Answer 9

The informal economy is one that is not taxed and is unregulated. Jobs like dog walking, babysitting and cleaning services could be informal.

Domestic labour is work done in the home without pay or other typical securities of employment.

Question 10

What theory does the sexual division of labour correspond to?

Answer 10

Feminism

Question 11

What is the impact of globalisation according to feminists?

Answer 11

Global interconnectedness has led to job insecurity, particularly affecting male workers, while increasing female participation in low-paid jobs.

Gender dynamics in globalization are complex, involving empowerment and vulnerability.

Question 12

What do reproductive and productive economies entail?

Answer 12

Reproductive economy encompasses unpaid domestic and care work essential for the productive economy.

Women’s unpaid labor is often unrecognized, leading to a double burden of paid and unpaid work.

Question 13

What theory do reproductive and productive economies correspond to?

Answer 13

Feminism

Question 14

What do Economic power dynamics signify to a feminist?

Answer 14

Women, particularly in the Global North, exert more economic influence than before, but disparities persist.

Recognizing both visible and invisible inequalities in economic roles emphasizes the importance of gender perspectives in economic analysis.

Question 15

What are the main perspectives of feminism in IR?

Answer 15

Liberal Feminism, Critical Feminist, Post colonial feminist, poststructuralist feminist, constructivist feminist.

Question 16

What are the main tenants of Liberal Feminist IR?

Answer 16

Focus: Advocates for extending rights and representation traditionally granted to men to women.

Goals: Aims to increase women’s representation in governance and change laws to enhance women’s participation.

Key Argument: Gender inequality is a barrier to human development and contributes to violence and conflict. Scholars like Hudson et al. argue that higher gender inequality correlates with increased violence.

Question 17

What are the main tenants of Critical Feminist IR?

Answer 17

Focus: Challenges liberal feminists for assuming neutrality and for viewing power as something to be redistributed without fundamental societal change.

Emphasis: Highlights the interplay between gender and class oppression, drawing on Marxist theories. It critiques capitalism and the global economic structures that perpetuate inequalities.

Question 18

What are the main tenants of Post colonial Feminist IR?

Answer 18

Focus: Links local gendered experiences to broader global structures of capitalism and colonialism.

Argument: Highlights how colonialism shaped gender roles and continues to affect women differently based on race and geography.

Critique: Challenges the universalizing tendencies of feminist theories from the Global North, emphasizing the need to recognize diverse women’s experiences and resist paternalistic notions of saving women.

Question 19

What are the main tenants of Poststructuralist Feminist IR?

Answer 19

Focus: Draws from Judith Butler’s concept of gender performativity, arguing that gender is a constructed identity shaped by cultural norms rather than a fixed biological attribute.

Key Ideas: Emphasizes how language and discourse shape gendered identities and experiences. Scholars analyze how international politics constructs and regulates gender.

Impact: Reveals the power dynamics in gender constructions, as seen in works discussing UN resolutions and the implications of language in international relations.

Question 20

What are the main tenants of Constructivist Feminist IR?

Answer 20

Constructivist are idealists. They see ideas as either causes (positivist) or focus on language (post positivist)
Constructivist Feminist focus on how global politics shape ideas around gender
Elisabeth pruegel uses linguistic approaches to analyse the treatment of of domestic labour and the ideas of femininity that justify the lack of wages and security afforded do women show work in the domestic sphere
It is often the common perception that domestic labour is not real labour, rather it is a completely private affair
She sees gender as gender as an institution that codifies power at every level of global politics

Question 21

What side did feminists align themselves with in the third grand debate?

Answer 21

The third grand debate in IR started in the 1980s between the established materialist, positivist and rationalist forces and postpositivist scholars who favoured theories such as Constructivism, poststructuralism and postmodernism. Many Feminist joined these scholars as they share their commitment to to examining the relationship between power and knowledge
They point out that men created most knowledge and that most knowledge is about men

Question 22

What is the social construction of reality and what theory does it correspond to?

Answer 22

Social construction is the creation of a subject or object, imbued with social values, norms and assumptions rather than being the creation of an individual.
Constructivist argue there isn’t one reality, but many contexts and that language and norms are relevant to international relations

Question 23

How is power defined under constructivism?

Answer 23

Power is the capacity to alter norms

Question 24

How are actors defined by constructivism?

Answer 24

Actors are actors by virtue of recognition

Question 25

What do constructivists emphasise?

Answer 25

Ideas, norms, rules and language and how material and ideational factors combine in the construction of different possible outcomes

Question 26

What meaning do Structure and Agents hold to constructivists?

Answer 26

Structure and agents: social structures not only constrain actors they also constitute identities.

Question 27

Which theory does the term Mutual constitutions correspond to?

Answer 27

the individual or state influences their environment as well as being influenced by it.

Question 28

What theories are holists?

Answer 28

Marxism, Constructivism

Question 29

How are norms constructed

Answer 29

Norm emergence> Norm cascade > Norm internalisation

Question 30

what theory does the logic of appropriateness apply to and what is it?

Answer 30

The logic of consequences attributes action to anticipated material costs and benefits The logic of appropriateness highlights how actors are norm and rule following and worry about the legitimacy of their actions The two logics are not necessarily discrete or competing

Question 31

what ontology do constructivists make use of?

Answer 31

Social ontology.

Question 32

What theory makes use of Max Webers verstehen?

Answer 32

Constructivist rely on Webers term of “Verstehen”, which means as much as collective interpretations, practices and institutions of actors themselves

Question 33

what epistemology do constructivists employ

Answer 33

positivist

Question 34

what is the difference between constructivists and radical constructivists?

Answer 34

constructivism has a positivist epistemology

Radical constructivism has a constructivist epistemology

Question 35

what is the meaning of language for constructivist?

Answer 35

To constructivists Language and action are rule based

Question 36

what is the meaning of rules and interpretation?

Answer 36

A rule is previously agreed upon, an interpretation is the act of trying to connect meaning with language
Usually following a rule is an interpretation but witti argues that it is reserved for the substitution of one rule for another

Question 37

What theory puts a focus on international anarchy and what does it assume?

Answer 37

Realism

The international system is inherently anarchic and lacks regulation, thus power rains supreme.

Question 38

What theory puts a focus on the balance of power and what does it mean?

Answer 38

States seek a balance of power by not allowing any one state become more powerful than another. Effectively global politics become a zero sum game of power.

Externally this presents itself in alliances and coalition building

Internally as a build up of capabilities

Question 39

What theory mentions the Security dilemma and what does it mean?

Answer 39

Realism

In international relations, the security dilemma (also referred to as the spiral model) is when the increase in one state’s security (such as increasing its military strength) leads other states to fear for their own security (because they do not know if the security-increasing state intends to use its growing military for offensive purposes)

Question 40

What theory mentions the Thucydides Trap and what does it mean?

Answer 40

Realism

This rise of one power that threatens a current power leading to war is called the “Thucydides Trap”

Question 41

What theory focus on the importance of the state and for what reason?

Answer 41

For realists, the state is the primary actor in international politics
Sovereignty is closely tied to the monopoly of legitimate power as defined by Max Weber
Max Weber agues that the key elements of central to sovereignty are ,Monopoly of force, Legitimacy , Territory
This monopoly or control ensures internal security and order allowing for the development of civil society

Question 42

What are the philosophical underpinnings of Realism?

Answer 42

Pessimistic account of human nature
Skeptical of the ability of human reason to transcend war and conflict
A world of scarcity zero sum logic
The group or state is the core unit of political analysis

Question 43

How would a Realist define Power?

Answer 43

Realist define power in terms of capabilities, such as Economic Wealth, Military Strength, Size of population and territory, resource endowment
Political Stability and competence.
Power is relative to other Nations.
Power is relational. An actors power influences another
Power is zero-sum, more for me, means less for you

Question 44

what are the differences between classical, structural and neo-classical realism?

Answer 44

Classical realism is grounded in the idea that human nature drives conflict and competition among states. Power politics is an inherent feature of human behavior, and the international system is anarchic because states are guided by self-interest and the will to dominate others.

Structural realism shifts the focus from human nature to the structure of the international system. The anarchic nature of the international system (the absence of a central authority) forces states to act in a way that ensures their survival.

Neoclassical realism blends classical and structural realism by acknowledging that the international system is anarchic and shapes state behavior, but it adds that domestic factors and perceptions of leaders also play a critical role in shaping foreign policy.

Question 45

How does the state come to be under Realism?

Answer 45

Realism assumes a pessimistic and Hobbesian human nature. Under classical realism the community of the state is held not together by power or coercion, but rather by cohesion and convention with in a group

Question 46

What is the difference between defensive and offensive realists?

Answer 46

Offensive realists argue in favour of an unending growth of power

Defensive realists argue in favour of gaining enough power to survive through appropriate amounts of power.

Question 47

What theory focuses on the importance of Core-periphery and for what reason?

Answer 47

Lenin and others argued in favour of a concept he called “monopoly capitalism” in which the imperial core extracts wealth from a subjected periphery to satiate its working class.
A Core provides high value added functions producing most of the global value, while the semi periphery and periphery are accountable for low value added trade

Question 48

What theory does historical materialism correspond to and what does it entail?

Answer 48

Marxism

Historical development is not linear but driven by the dialectical interplay of opposing forces, with economic conditions driving this dynamic. Marx used dialectical materialism to analyze how feudalism transformed into capitalism, and how capitalism, in turn, might be replaced by socialism through class struggle.

Question 49

What theory does base and superstructure correspond to and what does it entail?

Answer 49

Marxism

The economic base is compromised of relations of production, mode of production and means of production. The base informs a superstructure compromised of the state and culture as a whole.

Question 50

What theory does world systems analysis correspond to and what does it entail?

Answer 50

Marxism

A mode of analysis that focuses on macro-scale world historical processes and sees the world system as the central unit of analysis
Conversion of everything from use value to exchange value
Commercialization of land almost complete
Proletarianization – from subsistence and household work to wage labour
Mechanisation, Increasing Industrialisation and accumulation
Bureaucratization. Everything becomes more rational detatched and impersonal

Question 51

What theory does Historical Materialism correspond to and what does it entail?

Answer 51

Marxism

Human nature is mutable according to Marx and adapts to relations
Relevant relations are
The natural world
Social and institutional relations
Human persons
Humans are material beings and as such we must engage in productive activities, this productivity will be socially organised
Through the process of production the world and humanity is remade over and over again

Question 52

What theory does commodity chain correspond to and what does it entail?

Answer 52

Marxism

commodity chains describe goods as they move through production from ”raw to cooked”

Question 53

What theory does commodity chain correspond to and what does it entail?

Answer 53

Marxism

Intermediate components and services counted many times
The reality of trade patterns and who benefits are obscured
decomposition of gross exports, measuring trade in value-added
By nature of the core adding most of the value they keep most of the money in the core and keep the periphery poor and dependant
For example the iPhone is produced in China, yet because of its position in the commodity chain it gains less than one might expect

Question 54

What theory does Critical Theory correspond to and what does it entail?

Answer 54

Marxism

Less focused on economics and more focused on superstructure issues like culture, media and society

Question 55

What theory does Hegemony correspond to and what does it entail?

Answer 55

Marxism

Antonio Gramsci’s concept of hegemony refers to the way a ruling class maintains dominance, not just through force or coercion, but by securing the consent of the governed. According to Gramsci, the ruling class achieves this by shaping cultural norms, values, and beliefs in a way that makes their leadership seem natural and inevitable.

Question 56

What are Marxs main critiques of capitalism

Answer 56

Capitalism is defined by the commodification of human labour
Under capitalism the worker finally owns his labour though they a compelled to sell their labour
Capitalism tends towards an accumulation of capital and overproduction
The labourer gives up his right to self-production
Capital is viewed as social relation, it cannot exist as a static object
Capitalism is only possible through the accumulation of labour value, set in motion by labour value
The capitalist serves the economic from the political.

Question 57

What is the difference between realism and Marxism in their implementation of materialism?

Answer 57

Marxism is holist and views the state more as a marionette than a sovereign being.

Question 58

What are the philosophical underpinnings of Liberalism?

Answer 58

Optimistic account of human nature

Belief in progress

belief in democracy, human rights,
and the market

A world of positive sum cooperation and
absolute gains where actors maximize utility

Possible to overcome to the security dilemma

Question 59

What are the general propositions of Liberalism?

Answer 59

All citizens are equal before the law and
posses basic human rights

The authority of the legislature is vested in
the people
Individual liberty, right to property

A market-based system of economic
exchange is superior to bureaucratic state
regulated system

Question 60

What actors does Liberalism focus on?

Answer 60

Liberals focus on the development and use of international institutions to regulate global politics

As well as IGOs and NGOs

Question 61

What is complex
interdependence and what theory does it correspond to?

Answer 61

Liberalism

Mutual dependance increases cost of war, making it irrational to pursue

Question 62

What is the epidemiology of international conflict and what theory does it correspond to?

Answer 62

Liberalism

1. Deterrence by Military Strength (Realist View):
   Weaker states will avoid war if power is unbalanced
2. Alliances:
   Allies sharing common interests rarely fight.
3. Distance and Size:
   Neighboring states are more likely to fight due to proximity and competing interests.
4. Kantian Constraints (Liberal View):
   Democracy: Democracies rarely fight each other due to shared norms and leaders being held accountable by citizens.
   Trade: Economic interdependence incentivizes peace by making war costly.

Question 63

What are patterns of hierarchy and what theory does it critique?

Answer 63

The liberal order often reproduces structural hierarchies that favor powerful states, complicating
the ideal of sovereign equality and raising critiques of liberal internationalism as being inherently imperialistic.

Question 64

What is the responsibility to protect and what theory does it correspond to?

Answer 64

Liberalism

The debate surrounding the legitimacy and effectiveness of intervention on
humanitarian grounds, particularly in the context of shifting global power dynamics.

Question 65

What is the difference between liberalism and neoliberalism?

Answer 65

Liberalism in International Relations (IR) emphasizes cooperation, peace, and progress through democracy, economic interdependence, and international institutions, believing that human nature is rational and capable of reducing conflict.

Neoliberalism, shares the belief in cooperation but views it more pragmatically, arguing that states cooperate out of self-interest even in an anarchic system. It highlights the role of international institutions like the WTO and IMF in facilitating cooperation by reducing uncertainty and ensuring compliance, while acknowledging the importance of power and state survival.

Question 66

Who do poststructuralists see as the main actors in global politics?

Answer 66

Poststructuralists challenge this state-centric view, arguing that the state is not a fixed or natural entity. Instead, it is a social construct, a product of particular ways of understanding political community, shaped by historical, social, and discursive processes.

Poststructuralists, argue that world politics cannot be understood through straightforward cause-and-effect relationships. They embrace a post-positivist approach, asserting that the structures and categories we use to study world politics (such as states, wars, and security) are socially constructed and cannot be taken as given.
Poststructuralists favor constitutive theories

Question 67

What are the
difference between positivist and post positivist theories?

Answer 67

Positivism holds that there is an objective reality that can be observed and understood through empirical methods, similar to the natural sciences. It emphasizes facts, measurement, and generalization, believing that knowledge is value-free and objective. In contrast.
Post-positivism challenges the notion of complete objectivity, arguing that our understanding of reality is always influenced by human perspectives, biases, and social contexts. Post-positivists advocate for a more interpretive approach, recognizing the limitations of knowledge, the role of values in research, and the need for reflexivity in understanding social phenomena.

Question 68

What is Discourse and what theory does it correspond to?

Answer 68

Meaning is constituted through the available discourses. For instance, an illness like a heart attack can be understood through different discourses and each of these provides different perspectives on prevention and responsibility. This reflects how poststructuralists view discourse as shaping not just ideas but our interpretation of the real world.

Question 69

What is Deconstruction and what theory does it correspond to?

Answer 69

poststructuralism highlights that language is structured around binaries (e.g., civilized/barbaric, developed/underdeveloped). These binaries are not neutral; one side is usually privileged over the other, reinforcing a hierarchy between the civilized West and the uncivilized non-West.

Question 70

What is Genealogy and what theory does it correspond to?

Answer 70

A genealogical approach critiques the dominant narratives by highlighting the political practices that have constructed the present and by uncovering marginalized or alternative discourses.

Question 71

What is The Concept of Power p-s?

Answer 71

Foucault’s notion of power is central to poststructuralism, poststructuralists see power as productive—it is exercised through discourse. Power shapes how actors are constituted, recognized, and legitimized within the international system.
Foucault also introduced the concept of biopower, which operates at both the individual and population levels. Governments use biopower to regulate populations, promoting practices like population control, abstinence, or health measures.

Question 72

What is The Concept of Intertextuality and what theory does it correspond to?

Answer 72

In international relations, this is evident in official declarations that reference past statements. Intertextuality also highlights unspoken assumptions, such as NATO’s implicit Cold War focus on the Soviet Union. Meaning changes when texts are recontextualized.
Poststructuralists emphasize the role of popular culture in politics, noting that films, TV shows, and other media influence public perceptions

No text is without connection.

Question 73

how do poststructuralists view sovereignty and the state?

Answer 73

Poststructuralists agree with realists that the state plays a central role in world politics, but they do not take this role as a given. Instead, they deconstruct the state’s significance, arguing that it is not a timeless, static unit with an inherent essence. Treaties of Westphalia in 1648, which established the sovereign territorial state as the primary political unit in the international system.
sovereignty created an “inside-outside” distinction between the domestic realm (order, trust, and progress) and the international realm (conflict, anarchy, and power struggles). This division reflects what poststructuralists see as a discursive construction—an artificial boundary reinforced by repeated practices and representations, rather than an inherent truth about the world.

Question 74

What is The Inside-Outside Dichotomy and what theory does it correspond to?

Answer 74

poststructuralism

They argue that this division between domestic peace and international anarchy is not an objective reality but a discursive construct that needs constant reinforcement. The inside is defined by peace and order, while the outside is characterized by conflict and self-help. However, these categories are interdependent—each is defined by what it is not, making the dichotomy fragile and subject to deconstruction.
State sovereignty is both challenged and reproduced in contemporary world politics, as poststructuralists argue.

Question 75

What is poststructuralisms critique of realism?

Answer 75

poststructuralists share some concerns with realists, particularly the need to take power and the state seriously.

Poststructuralists reject neorealism’s ahistorical and positivist approach. They argue that realism’s focus on the inevitability of conflict and anarchy overlooks the ways in which these dynamics are discursively constructed

poststructuralists do see value in classical realism, which is historically sensitive. Classical realists, such as Hans Morgenthau, are seen as more attuned to the complexities of power and the ethical challenges of political life, which resonates with poststructuralists

Question 76

What is poststructuralisms critique of universalism?

Answer 76

Claims of universal values, such as freedom, democracy, and human rights, are not neutral but are shaped by the particular interests of powerful states, especially in the West.

The discourse surrounding interventions in Iraq and Afghanistan, where Western governments framed military action as a defense of universal values like democracy and security, serves as a prime example.

Poststructuralists argue that efforts to transcend state sovereignty in favor of global governance risk recreating systems of domination and exclusion, where the particular interests of some are presented as universal truths.

Question 77

what is the poststructuralist approach to identity in IR?

Answer 77

Poststructuralists view foreign policies as more than pragmatic decisions to protect the state; they are discourses that create and define state identity. For example, how the European Union (EU) discusses Turkey’s membership application is not simply about geographical or political suitability.

In this view, foreign policies don’t just reflect an existing identity—they play a constitutive role, helping to produce the identity they seem to be defending.

Question 78

What is performativity and what theory does it correspond to?

Answer 78

Identity is seen as performative because it exists only insofar as it is enacted and reproduced through discourse and action. American identity is shaped by the construction of external threats. America is what it is not.

Question 79

What is the concept of Subject position and what theory does it correspond to?

Answer 79

Positions refer to the ways individuals or groups are constructed in discourse and are often laden with power dynamics.

These subject positions are not neutral, and poststructuralists are particularly interested in how power operates through them.

Superior subject positions—like that of the European or Western subject—grant greater agency and authority. Meanwhile, others, such as “the Muslim,” are often disempowered.

These positions are not only discursive but also material, as seen in how international institutions like the United Nations grant states full membership while marginalizing non-state actors or stateless people like the Palestinians.

Question 80

What is the concept of Material discourse and what theory does it correspond to?

Answer 80

Poststructuralists extend their analysis of identity and subject positions to material practices and technologies. biometric passports, visa restrictions, and border control technologies regulate who belongs and who does not. These material elements of policy.

Such technologies work in tandem with discourse to shape identities, producing who is seen as a legitimate citizen and who is not.

Question 81

what epistemic position does post-structuralism hold?

Answer 81

post positivist

anti foundationalism

Question 82

what are the usual critiques of post-structuralism?

Answer 82

lack of scientific rigour

postmodernist

subjective

Question 83

what is the post modern?

Answer 83

emerged after ww2

postmodernity is not a new epoch but rather a problematic that reflects modernity’s evolution.

Much of the opposition to postmodernism in IR arises from the misconception that interpretive analytics celebrate a superficial cultural context

Question 84

what is the difference between post modernity and poststructuralism?

Answer 84

Postmodernity encompasses transformations in time-space relations within modernity, while poststructuralism serves as a critical analytic tool for understanding these changes.

Question 85

what is modernism?

Answer 85

Modernism refers to a cultural style from the 1890s to the outbreak of World War II, reflecting significant political, sociological, and technological transformations in Europe and the USA.

Question 86

what theory did Michel Foucault contribute to and what did he contribute?

Answer 86

Critical Attitude: Foucault’s concept of the “limit attitude” involves interrogating the boundaries that define knowledge and practice rather than seeking to escape them. This involves a critique of the assumptions underlying accepted norms.

Critique as Emancipation: Foucault argues that critique is about uncovering the assumptions that shape reality, enabling a rethinking of what is considered “natural” or “self-evident.”

Historical Construction of Subjectivity:
Foucault emphasizes that individuals are products of specific power relations, questioning the existence of a universal human nature. This perspective shifts the focus from liberation to understanding how identities are formed and regulated.

Question 87

Do poststructuralism and post colonial hold similar beliefs?

Answer 87

The emphasis on exclusion and identity in poststructuralism aligns with postcolonial critiques, highlighting the importance of understanding historical and cultural contexts that shape identities and power relations.

Question 88

How is “discourse” described in the context of poststructuralism?

Answer 88

In poststructuralism, discourse is described as a series of representations and practices that produce meanings, constitute identities, establish social relations, and shape political and ethical outcomes. It refers to the ways in which language and other forms of communication construct the social world, not just in terms of words but also through practices and power dynamics.

Question 89

What is a common misinterpretation of discourse by critics of poststructuralism?

Answer 89

Critics of poststructuralism often misinterpret discourse as equating to “everything is language” or that “there is no reality.” This reduction suggests that poststructuralism denies the existence of material reality or objective truths, which undermines the theory’s nuances about how meaning and social structures are constructed.

Question 90

How does poststructuralism view the relationship between discourse and social relations?

Answer 90

Poststructuralism views discourse as central to constituting social relations. Through the representations and practices embedded in discourse, identities are constructed, power relations are maintained or challenged, and societal norms are reinforced or subverted. This means that discourse shapes how individuals and groups relate to one another within a social context.

Question 91

Does the assertion that objects are constituted as objects of discourse deny their existence outside of discourse for poststructuralists?

Answer 91

No, the assertion does not deny the existence of objects outside of discourse. Objects can exist externally to thought, but their emergence as meaningful objects is conditioned by discourse. In other words, discourse frames how we understand and interpret these objects, but it does not negate their independent existence.

Question 92

What is meant by the “constitutive function” of discourse?

Answer 92

The constitutive function of discourse refers to its performative nature. Discourse doesn’t just describe or reflect reality; it actively constitutes the subjects and objects it addresses. For instance, the concept of a “state” is produced and maintained through a variety of discursive practices, meaning the state is brought into being and understood through these social and linguistic processes.

Question 93

What does the notion of “materialization” in discourse theory refer to?

Answer 93

This concept moves beyond the idea of simple social construction, explaining how discourses can solidify into seemingly permanent social structures, identities, and realities through repetition and reinforcement over time.

Question 94

How do poststructuralists respond to the materialist perspective in IR?

Answer 94

Poststructuralists acknowledge the existence of the material world but argue that it does not inherently carry meaning on its own. Instead, the significance of material events, such as violence, is shaped by the discursive conditions that determine how those events are understood.

Question 95

Why do poststructuralists criticize the focus on material aspects alone in ethical and political analysis?

Answer 95

Poststructuralists criticize focusing solely on material aspects (e.g., a bullet) because this approach neglects the discursive context that gives meaning to events. Without considering how events are framed by discourse, deeper ethical and political issues—such as the motivations, identities, and power relations at play—are overlooked.

Question 96

Why is it important for poststructuralists to analyze the discourse of International Relations itself?

Answer 96

It is important to analyze the discourse of IR because it produces the subjects and constructs the very domain that IR theory seeks to understand. This means that the discourse shapes the identities and roles of actors in global politics, so analyzing it allows for a deeper understanding of how these actors are defined within the broader field of IR.

Question 97

How does poststructuralism differ from epistemic realism in terms of understanding reality?

Answer 97

Poststructuralism rejects epistemic realism, which holds that there is an objective reality independent of human beliefs. Instead, poststructuralism asserts that all understanding is interpretative and shaped by discourse. There is no “reality” outside of the discursive frameworks that shape how we interpret and make sense of the world.

Question 98

hat does poststructuralism mean by the “politics of explanation”?

Answer 98

The “politics of explanation” refers to the idea that different modes of representation and interpretation have political consequences. Poststructuralism moves away from strict causal logic and focuses on how specific problematizations of issues emerge historically, shaping contemporary understandings. This involves examining how particular narratives or discourses frame our interpretation of current events and their political implications.

Question 99

What are the three core concepts of the English School?

Answer 99

International System (Hobbes/Machiavelli): Focuses on power politics and anarchy between states, aligning with realism.
International Society

(Grotius): Focuses on shared norms, rules, and institutions among states, aligning with rationalism.

World Society (Kant): Focuses on individuals and non-state actors, aligning with ideas of global societal identity and liberalism.

Question 100

What is the significance of the Grotian concept of international society?

Answer 100

The Grotian concept of international society is central to the English School’s understanding of how states interact not just as power players in an anarchic system, but as members of a society with shared norms, rules, and institutions. This concept seeks to explain how order is maintained in international relations through common interests and institutions, transcending mere power politics.

Question 101

How does the English School reconcile realism and liberalism in international relations?

Answer 101

The English School reconciles realism and liberalism by incorporating both power politics (realism) and the role of shared norms, rules, and institutions (rationalism) into its framework. It acknowledges the coexistence of an anarchic system and an international society, where states interact within socially constructed systems of rules and norms.

Question 102

What methodological approaches are associated with the three core concepts of the English School?

Answer 102

International System: Associated with positivism.

International Society: Associated with hermeneutics and interpretivism.

World Society: Associated with critical theory.

Question 103

Why is the concept of world society underdeveloped in English School theory?

Answer 103

The concept of world society remains underdeveloped because it is difficult to clearly articulate its relationship with international society and how it fits within global political structures. There is confusion about how non-state actors like transnational corporations and NGOs relate to world society, and how these entities fit with broader ideas of shared global identities and norms.

Question 104

What advantages does the English School offer in contemporary international relations (IR) theory?

Answer 104

It provides a framework to synthesize various IR theories, helping bridge the gap between fragmented approaches like realism and liberalism.

Its pluralist approach allows scholars to tell Hobbesian, Kantian, and Grotian stories in parallel, rather than in opposition, encouraging a holistic understanding of international systems.

The School’s key concepts and methodological pluralism make it a strong vehicle for multidisciplinary research, integrating political theory, history, law, sociology, and more.

Question 105

How does the English School’s approach differ from traditional mainstream IR theories?

Answer 105

the English School offers a more integrative approach. It avoids viewing these theories as mutually exclusive and instead encourages a synthesis of perspectives, each highlighting different facets of international relations. This holistic approach makes the English School a strong candidate for developing a ‘grand theory’ in IR.

Question 106

hat are the main characteristics that distinguish a pluralist international society from a solidarist international society for english school scholars?

Answer 106

A pluralist international society focuses on the coexistence of states with minimal shared values, emphasizing order, mutual recognition, and stability through institutions like diplomacy and the balance of power.

In contrast, a solidarist international society advocates for universal values such as human rights, asserting that states have a duty to protect these rights. Solidarism allows for intervention when necessary, challenging the norms of sovereignty in favor of moral obligations.

Question 107

what is international society in English school

Answer 107

The classical definition of international society comes from Hedley Bull, who stated that it forms when a group of states, aware of common interests and values, sees themselves as bound by shared rules and participates in common institutions.

Question 108

what is the interpretive mode of inquiry

Answer 108

The English School, has been committed to an interpretive mode of inquiry that emphasized historical understanding, norms, and moral questions about the international order. Despite this, the School remained marginal in the broader IR field dominated by North American positivism, particularly during the rise of Gramscian, feminist, poststructuralist, and constructivist critiques of positivism in the 1980s.

Question 109

What do postcolonial and decolonial approaches critique about conventional social science and IR?

Answer 109

Postcolonial and decolonial approaches critique the ontological assumptions of conventional social science and IR, questioning what is being studied, who is being studied, and the general composition of the world as understood by these disciplines. They argue that IR has historically focused primarily on sovereign states and Western great powers, neglecting the experiences and histories of non-Western peoples and polities, especially those shaped by empire and colonialism.

Question 110

What concept do decolonial approaches engage with to discuss the structure of the modern world?

Answer 110

Decolonial approaches engage with the concept of “modernity/coloniality” to discuss how the modern world is fundamentally structured by colonial hierarchies. This perspective highlights the enduring impacts of colonialism on contemporary global relations and knowledge production.

Question 111

How do postcolonial and decolonial approaches interpret the principle of national self-determination?

Answer 111

Postcolonial and decolonial approaches critique the principle of national self-determination as espoused by figures like US President Woodrow Wilson, arguing that it was primarily intended for Eastern Europe. Consequently, this principle led to the violent repression of anti-colonial protests in regions like India and Ireland, demonstrating a selective application that undermined the self-determination of colonized peoples.

Question 112

What are the normative implications of postcolonial and decolonial critiques regarding Western supremacy?

Answer 112

ostcolonial and decolonial critiques highlight that the attitudes, practices, and structures supporting Western supremacy are often unequal, racist, and dehumanizing. These approaches contend that conventional IR elevates Western states and peoples as fundamentally more important, which can lead to feelings of superiority and entitlement among Western actors and indifference towards non-Western experiences and histories.

Question 113

What does the term “kicking away the ladder” refer to in the context of economic development?

Answer 113

The term “kicking away the ladder,” coined by economist Ha-Joon Chang, refers to the idea that the West became wealthy through practices that are now prohibited by international agreements, such as colonial territorial expansion and the use of enslaved labor. This phrase suggests that the West, after achieving economic growth through such means, now denies poorer countries the same opportunities for development under current international norms and regulations.

Question 114

What moral obligations do many argue the West has towards the descendants of formerly enslaved people?

Answer 114

Given the role of Western imperialism in shaping contemporary economic structures, many argue that there are strong moral obligations for the West to make reparations for the effects of these historical injustices. This includes acknowledging and addressing the lasting impacts of colonialism and slavery on the economic and social conditions of descendants of formerly enslaved people.

Question 115

How do postcolonial and decolonial approaches differ in terms of geographical and philosophical origins?

Answer 115

Postcolonial approaches are often associated with thinkers of Asian and African descent, while decolonial approaches have been primarily cultivated by Latin American thinkers. Despite sharing many common historical reference points, their differences stem from distinct geographic and philosophical contexts.

Question 116

What historical events catalyzed the development of anti-colonial movements?

Answer 116

Key historical events include the Haitian Revolution (1791-1804), the Indian independence movement, and various uprisings across Asia, Africa, and Latin America. These movements were influenced by the desire for independence and were often connected to broader ideologies, including Marxism and nationalist sentiments.

Question 117

What role did the concept of ‘modernity/coloniality’ play in decolonial thought?

Answer 117

The concept of ‘modernity/coloniality’ in decolonial thought refers to the idea that the modern world is fundamentally structured by colonial hierarchies. This perspective highlights how colonialism and imperialism continue to shape global power dynamics and knowledge production.

Question 118

In what ways do postcolonial and decolonial approaches critique conventional IR?

Answer 118

These approaches critique conventional IR for its focus on sovereign states and Western great powers, arguing that it neglects the experiences of most of the world’s populations and fails to account for the historical impact of empire and colonialism in shaping global politics.

Question 119

What is the significance of the First World War in conventional IR narratives?

Answer 119

In conventional IR narratives, the First World War is seen as a pivotal moment that marked the breakdown of the 19th-century ‘Long Peace,’ the testing of the balance of power, and the establishment of national self-determination. However, postcolonial and decolonial perspectives argue that this view overlooks the imperial dynamics and the global scale of conflicts involving colonial subjects.

Question 120

How do postcolonial and decolonial thinkers view the economic growth of Western countries?

Answer 120

They argue that the wealth of Western countries was built upon colonial exploitation and unjust practices, which are now prohibited for poorer nations. The notion of ‘kicking away the ladder’ refers to the idea that while the West has benefitted from certain practices, it now denies those same opportunities to formerly colonized nations, perpetuating inequality.

Question 121

What impact did anti-colonial intellectuals have on global resistance movements?

Answer 121

Anti-colonial intellectuals played a crucial role in shaping political strategies and ideologies against colonial powers. They were often connected with international movements and shared ideas on resistance, organization, and strategies for independence, influencing global discourse on colonialism and capitalism.

Question 122

What key events fostered a sense of Third World identity after formal independence?

Answer 122

Events such as the Bandung Conference in 1955 and the Havana Tricontinental Conference in 1966 helped foster a collective Third World identity, where leaders from Asia, Africa, and Latin America came together to discuss mutual concerns regarding imperialism, racial discrimination, and economic inequality.

Question 123

Who are some notable figures associated with postcolonial and decolonial thought?

Answer 123

Edward Said, Gayatri Spivak,

Question 124

What is the difference between postcolonial and decolonial thought?

Answer 124

Postcolonial thought primarily focuses on the effects and legacies of colonialism, particularly in regions formerly colonized by Britain or France. In contrast, decolonial thought emphasizes the need to challenge and dismantle colonial structures and includes perspectives from regions formerly colonized by Spain and Portugal. Decolonial thought also often highlights indigenous cosmologies and worldviews.

Question 125

Who coined the term ‘neo-colonialism,’ and what does it mean?

Answer 125

The term ‘neo-colonialism’ was coined by Kwame Nkrumah, the first leader of independent Ghana, in his 1965 work Neo-colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism. Neo-colonialism refers to a situation where a country appears to be independent but is, in reality, economically and politically controlled by external forces, often the former colonial power, leading to continued exploitation and impoverishment.

Question 126

What are the key ideas associated with Frantz Fanon’s views on colonialism?

Answer 126

Frantz Fanon viewed colonialism as a system of total violence that dehumanizes and alienates the colonized people. He argued that reconciliation with colonialism was impossible due to its fundamental negation of the humanity and rights of the colonized. Fanon advocated for violent resistance as a necessary means to overthrow colonialism and establish a more equal society.

Question 127

How does Edward Said’s concept of ‘Orientalism’ contribute to the understanding of imperialism?

Answer 127

Edward Said’s concept of ‘Orientalism’ highlights how Western representations of Eastern cultures justified imperialism. By portraying non-Europeans as barbaric and irrational compared to the rational and enlightened Europeans, Orientalism created a narrative that supported colonial control and dominance over Eastern societies.

Question 128

What is meant by ‘border thinking,’ and who coined the term?

Answer 128

‘Border thinking’ is a concept coined by Chicana thinker Gloria Anzaldúa, associated with Walter Mignolo. It refers to thinking from the perspectives of marginalized groups excluded from the ideals of modernity. This form of thinking challenges the authority of European reasoning and seeks to create alternatives to colonial modernity by incorporating indigenous and non-white perspectives.

Question 129

How is ‘decolonization’ defined in contemporary discussions?

Answer 129

In contemporary discussions, ‘decolonization’ encompasses a range of critical projects aimed at overturning the legacies of colonialism across various fields, including education, culture, and social practices. It involves not just political independence but also psychological and intellectual struggles to reclaim indigenous agency, languages, and identities. This broad understanding of decolonization is sometimes critiqued by indigenous scholars for diluting its original meanings.

Question 130

What role does Eurocentrism play in postcolonial and decolonial thought?

Answer 130

Eurocentrism refers to the tendency to view European history and culture as the central reference point for understanding the world. This perspective often marginalizes non-European histories and knowledge systems. Critical thinkers like Samir Amin and Immanuel Wallerstein have highlighted Eurocentrism’s role in perpetuating colonial ideologies and reinforcing Western dominance in global narratives.

Question 131

What challenges do subaltern groups face in historical representation?

Answer 131

Subaltern groups, as described by Antonio Gramsci, are those marginalized from dominant power structures and ideologies. They often lack representation in historical narratives, making it difficult to document their experiences and struggles. Scholars like Gayatri Spivak have pointed out that intersecting factors like colonialism and patriarchy further complicate the historical visibility of subaltern voices, particularly those of women.

Question 132

How has globalization influenced the discourse on knowledge production in universities?

Answer 132

Globalization has democratized knowledge production by increasing access to diverse perspectives and resources across various fields of study. This shift allows universities to incorporate non-Western viewpoints and challenge imperial attitudes in knowledge creation. However, challenges remain, such as the dominance of English and corporate publishing, which continue to perpetuate inequalities in academic access.

Question 133

In what ways does modernity relate to coloniality according to decolonial thinkers?

Answer 133

Decolonial thinkers argue that modernity is fundamentally intertwined with coloniality, a hierarchical structure that privileges ‘modern’ (often Western) ideas over those deemed ‘non-modern’ (often non-Western). This relationship suggests that modern global processes like capitalism and development are rooted in colonial power dynamics, thus challenging the conventional view of modernity as a purely progressive force.

Question 134

: What role did colonialism play in the early development of International Relations (IR) as a scholarly field?

Answer 134

Colonialism was central to the early development of International Relations, particularly through the contributions of African-American thinkers such as W. E. B. Du Bois and the Howard School. They highlighted the pressing issues of empire, race, and colonialism during the establishment of IR. However, their work was later overlooked, particularly in the context of the cold war, which suppressed criticisms of the West.

Question 135

What were W. E. B. Du Bois’s contributions to the understanding of international relations in the early 20th century?

Answer 135

W. E. B. Du Bois argued that the ‘global color line’ was the major problem of the twentieth century and linked competition for colonial control to racial discrimination and a sense of white superiority. He suggested that the invention of ‘whiteness’ as an identity was tied to capitalism and democracy in Europe, which led to imperialism as a solution for consumer demands and political pride.

Question 136

How did postcolonial scholars critique conventional international relations theories?

Answer 136

Postcolonial scholars criticized conventional IR theories for abstracting too much from reality and focusing primarily on Western states as independent units. This led to an oversimplified view of the international system, which ignored the dynamics of empire and colonialism. They also highlighted the role of international law as a tool of Western civilization rather than a neutral framework.

Question 137

What is the concept of ‘quasi-states’ as discussed in the text, and how do postcolonial scholars view this terminology?

Answer 137

‘Quasi-states’ refer to states in the Global South that possess legal sovereignty but lack effective control over their internal affairs, as articulated by scholars like Robert Jackson. Postcolonial scholars oppose this terminology, arguing that it overlooks the historical context of colonialism and suggests that the failures of these states stem from inherent incapacity rather than colonial legacies and economic structures.

Question 138

In what ways do postcolonial and decolonial approaches provide alternatives to understanding contemporary world politics?

Answer 138

Postcolonial and decolonial approaches offer alternative perspectives by emphasizing the historical context of imperialism and colonialism, questioning the assumptions of Western superiority, and advocating for the inclusion of non-Western political, economic, and military formations. They also focus on the voices and perspectives of formerly colonized peoples, thereby enriching the analysis of global issues.

Question 139

How have postcolonial and decolonial approaches influenced the understanding of issues such as US foreign policy?

Answer 139

Scholars like Roxanne Doty have used postcolonial approaches to analyze US foreign policy, revealing how imperial and racialized representations influenced decisions, such as those related to the Philippines and Kenya. This contrasts with conventional views that typically focus on the strategic or bureaucratic aspects of policy-making, allowing for a broader understanding of historical contexts and implications.

Question 140

What are some contemporary implications of postcolonial and decolonial scholarship in light of global political changes?

Answer 140

Postcolonial and decolonial scholarship remains relevant as it addresses the continuing impacts of imperial relations in global institutions, international law, and trade. It critiques the complicity of non-Western powers in neo-colonial practices and emphasizes the importance of recognizing historical injustices in shaping current political dynamics and movements for equality.

Question 141

What challenges do postcolonial and decolonial approaches face in the current geopolitical landscape?

Answer 141

A key challenge is to determine how emerging powers in the Global South will navigate their relationships with their own colonial pasts while interacting with existing global power structures. The question remains whether these countries will seek to create new frameworks for global governance or replicate the imperial patterns established by Western powers.

Question 142

What does postcolonialism associate with the development of international order and society?

Answer 142

Postcolonialism associates the development of international order and society with specific kinds of violence.

Question 143

What is the historical context for the postcolonial critique of international morality?

Answer 143

The critique is rooted in the early protests against the treatment of native populations, starting with the conquests led by figures like Christopher Columbus, and supported by ecclesiastic, ethical, and moral thinkers.

Question 144

Who were Friars Antonio de Montesinos and Bartolomé de las Casas, and what did they protest?

Answer 144

They were early critics of Spanish colonialism who protested against the treatment of native populations in the Americas, raising moral objections to the methods of European conquest.

Question 145

How did European methods of control vary across different regions?

Answer 145

European methods varied from direct colonization in the New World to indirect rule and protectorates in other areas, including dual control with native rulers and total administrative control.

Question 146

What is the irony that postcolonialism perceives in the establishment of a global order?

Answer 146

Postcolonialism recognizes that the establishment of a global order, initiated by Europe, came at the cost of violence and oppression, which is often overlooked in narratives of modernity.

Question 147

What does postcolonialism suggest about the world and its institutions?

Answer 147

It suggests that while the world cannot be unmade, its institutions and systems can be restructured to better reflect contemporary communities.

Question 148

How does postcolonialism view knowledge and historical narratives?

Answer 148

It views knowledge as incomplete, often shaped by colonial and imperial structures that deliver biased interpretations of events.

Question 149

What role did colonial structures play in the development of academic research?

Answer 149

Colonial structures allowed European scholars to study non-European societies, but this was often done without collaboration with local populations, leading to a skewed understanding.

Question 150

What is meant by “imperial knowledge,” and how was it perceived?

Answer 150

Imperial knowledge refers to the body of knowledge produced by colonial powers, which was often not accessible to colonized peoples and rooted in a Eurocentric perspective.

Question 151

How does postcolonialism critique the expert knowledge surrounding former colonial regions?

Answer 151

It disputes the validity of common ideas that frame imperialism and colonialism as justifiable based on racial, cultural, and environmental factors.

Question 152

What are some beliefs that postcolonialism contests about Western thought?

Answer 152

It contests the notion that Western rationalism and humanism are sufficient frameworks for critiquing imperialism and that they offer solutions for the oppressed.

Question 153

What is the significance of examining reason, history, and culture in postcolonial studies?

Answer 153

Examining these areas is crucial for re-envisioning the future and recognizing the limitations of Western thought in addressing global issues.

Question 154

What does postcolonialism acknowledge about Western intellectual contributions?

Answer 154

It acknowledges the intrinsic merits of Western intellectual attempts while remaining critical of their limitations and historical contexts.

Question 155

How does postcolonialism approach the works of thinkers like Immanuel Kant?

Answer 155

It appreciates their contributions but questions their applicability, particularly in light of gaps in their analyses concerning issues like slavery.

Question 156

What questions does postcolonialism raise about Kant’s moral philosophy?

Answer 156

It questions whether Kant’s omissions regarding slavery and colonialism undermine the validity of his theories on ethics and cosmopolitanism.

Question 157

What does postcolonialism argue regarding the concepts of international order and ethics?

Answer 157

It argues that these concepts are historically tied to European colonialism and must be critically examined for their political implications.

Question 158

What is the double movement in Western moral thought that postcolonialism identifies?

Answer 158

It involves the recognition of European authorship when it benefits the legitimacy of discourse, while concealing it when emphasizing universal values.

Question 159

How does postcolonialism view the discourse surrounding human rights?

Answer 159

It critiques the idea of human rights as universal, arguing that their origins in Western contexts often obscure the realities of colonial violence.

Question 160

What does postcolonialism suggest about the narratives of Western modernity and liberalism?

Answer 160

It suggests that these narratives often suppress the historical violence associated with Western expansion and serve political ends.

Question 161

What does postcolonialism embrace despite its critiques of Western narratives?

Answer 161

It embraces reason, universalism, and pragmatism but maintains skepticism about their neutrality and objectivity in the context of colonial history.

Question 162

How does postcolonialism view contemporary institutional approaches to international relations?

Answer 162

It sees these approaches as potentially perpetuating colonial attitudes, failing to identify the values underpinning proposed institutions.

Question 163

What implications does postcolonialism raise regarding interventions and global governance?

Answer 163

It cautions against interventions that disguise imperial ambitions as humanitarian efforts, suggesting that they often disregard the complexities of local contexts.

Question 164

What is the primary focus of postcolonial studies in the English-speaking world?

Answer 164

Postcolonial studies primarily focus on the examination of identities and cultures, often referencing key works by authors such as Edward Said and Gayatri Spivak.

Question 165

Who are some of the notable authors mentioned in the text related to postcolonialism?

Answer 165

Notable authors include Edward Said (Orientalism), Gayatri Spivak (In Other Worlds), Ngugi wa Thiong’o (Decolonizing the Mind), Homi Bhabha (The Location of Culture), Bill Ashcroft et al. (The Empire Writes Back), and Gloria Anzaldúa (Borderlands/La Frontiera).

Question 166

What types of scholarly genres and journals have emerged from postcolonial studies?

Answer 166

Scholarly genres and journals that have emerged include Subaltern Studies, Presence Africaine, and Nepantla.

Question 167

How does postcolonialism approach the concepts of identity and culture?

Answer 167

Postcolonialism does not endorse fixed notions of identity or authenticity in culture; rather, it acknowledges their historical representations and applies them within fluid postcolonial contexts.

Question 168

What is the criticism of essentialism in postcolonialism?

Answer 168

Essentialism suggests that identities and cultures have fixed, impermeable characteristics. Postcolonialism critiques this idea and promotes a more dynamic understanding of identity and culture.

Question 169

Why do postcolonial theorists in Africa view the concept of the nation with dread?

Answer 169

Postcolonial theorists often view the nation with dread because the populations that constitute modern African nations were historically fragmented and did not form linguistically or culturally coherent entities before European colonization.

Question 170

hat is Edward Said’s definition of Orientalism?

Answer 170

According to Said, Orientalism is not merely a geographical concept referring to the East, but a technique of power rooted in language and processes that produce distorted representations of Eastern identities, cultures, and religions.

Question 171

How does Orientalism manifest in Western representations of the Orient?

Answer 171

Orientalism leads to the creation of a mythical space that inaccurately represents the Orient, institutionalizing stereotypes and justifying cultural dominance through textual representation.

Question 172

What historical contexts does Said’s work illuminate regarding colonialism?

Answer 172

Said’s work highlights the cultural and political struggles between imperial societies and colonized societies over knowledge, power, and the construction of identities.

Question 173

How does Orientalism relate to contemporary Western views of terrorism?

Answer 173

rientalism contributes to a narrative where terrorism is framed in a simplistic manner, often associating it with specific groups and beliefs without addressing the underlying political contexts or motivations.

Question 174

What are the ideological implications of Western perceptions of Arab regimes and Muslims?

Answer 174

Western perceptions often perpetuate stereotypes of Arab regimes as despotic and traditional, overlooking the complexities and rationalities of political actions in the Muslim world.

Question 175

What does the text imply about the relationship between terrorism and Orientalism?

Answer 175

The text suggests that Orientalism informs Western discourses on terrorism, reducing complex realities to simplistic categories that ignore the political and social contexts of violence.

Question 176

What are the three tenets of Orientalism identified in the text?

Answer 176

The three tenets are: (1) separate, unequal, and hierarchical spheres of civilizations; (2) maintaining boundaries between the West and the Orient; and (3) the need for ‘moderate Arabs’ to adopt Western values.

Question 177

How does the text critique the notion of a monolithic European civilization?

Answer 177

The text argues that the idea of a singular European civilization ignores historical interdependencies with other cultures and fails to recognize that notions of civilization are complex and historically contingent.

Question 178

How do historical events, like the Berlin Africa Conference, relate to civilizational discourses?

Answer 178

The Berlin Africa Conference illustrated how civilizational discourses were used to mask the violent realities of colonialism under humanitarian pretenses, shaping perceptions of Africa and its peoples.

Question 179

What ethical concerns are raised regarding the Western perception of violence?

Answer 179

The text highlights a disparity in outrage between Western responses to violence against their citizens compared to the daily violence experienced by Palestinians under military occupation, suggesting a selective moral engagement

Question 180

How does Orientalism affect the moral discourse surrounding terrorism?

Answer 180

Orientalism influences the moral discourse, often legitimizing total violence against perceived enemies while framing violence against Western civilians as an absolute moral outrage.

Question 181

What is the impact of Orientalism on European Muslims?

Answer 181

Orientalism fosters a climate of suspicion and alienation towards European Muslims, who may resist shedding their Islamic traditions in favor of conforming to Western norms.

Question 182

How does the text view the historical relationship between Europe and Islam?

Answer 182

The text critiques the simplistic opposition between ‘civilized Europe’ and ‘Oriental barbarism,’ arguing that European history includes violent ideologies and practices that resonate with the so-called barbarism of the Orient.

Question 183

What are the potential political consequences of Orientalism as highlighted in the text?

Answer 183

The political consequences include the perpetuation of stereotypes, justification for violence in foreign policy, and the broader framing of complex social and political issues in oversimplified, binary terms.

Question 184

What is the main concern of global IR scholarship regarding regionalism?

Answer 184

Answer: A key concern is the Eurocentric framing of regionalism in theoretical literature, which overlooks the diverse forms and functions that regionalism has taken worldwide.

Question 185

What are some historical forms and functions of regionalism?

Answer 185

Answer: Historical forms of regionalism include:

Great-power spheres of influence: Examples are the US Monroe Doctrine, German Mitteleuropa, Japanese Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, and the Concert of Europe.

Conflict-management approaches: Regionalism can serve as an alternative to universalism, exemplified by organizations that focus on conflict resolution.

‘Cultural identity: Movements like Pan-Americanism, Pan-Europeanism, Pan-Arabism, etc., express cultural autonomy.

‘Economic integration: Post-World War II Western Europe pursued regional integration to prevent war.

Decolonization: Conferences like the Asian Relations Conference and the Bandung Conference advanced national liberation.
Resistance to intervention: Historical Latin American regionalism and groups like the Arab League and OAU organized against great-power intervention.

Economic development: Many regional economic groups promote self-reliance and intraregional linkages.

Question 186

Why is Latin America considered the true pioneer of regionalism?

Answer 186

Latin America promoted regionalism over 100 years before the establishment of the European Economic Community (EEC), actively advocating for it during the framing of the UN Charter at the San Francisco Conference.

Question 187

How has Eurocentrism affected theories of regionalism?

Answer 187

Theories such as liberalism, neoliberal institutionalism, and constructivism are primarily derived from Western contexts, making them less applicable to non-Western regionalism. Since the 1950s, these theories have closely aligned with the EEC’s evolution, which limits their explanatory power in non-Western contexts.

Question 188

What is the significance of the “new regionalism” literature?

Answer 188

The “new regionalism” literature, along with the application of constructivism, expands the understanding of regionalism by acknowledging the complexity and variety of regional orders beyond the Eurocentric perspective, but still does not fully capture the diversity of perspectives rooted in different worldviews.

Question 189

What are the emerging functions of regionalism in the contemporary world?

Answer 189

Contemporary regionalism is increasingly focused on transnational issues such as environmental challenges, migration, human rights, counter-terrorism, and internal conflicts, moving beyond traditional goals of trade liberalization and conflict management.

Question 190

What should global IR scholars do regarding regionalism?

Answer 190

Scholars should conceptualize and investigate diverse forms of regionalism, moving away from evaluating them solely against the EU integration model. They should recognize the unique characteristics and functions of regional groups across different regions.

Question 191

What is the “area studies versus the discipline” debate in IR?

Answer 191

This debate, primarily American in nature, contrasts area studies approaches with traditional IR theories. The text argues for convergence and synergy between both, as many scholars globally utilize both disciplinary and area studies knowledge.

Question 192

What are the two new directions in the mutual engagement between IR and area studies?

Answer 192

Disciplinary Area Studies: Scholars whose primary focus is IR but also study specific regions due to novel phenomena or trends.
Transnational and Comparative Regional Studies: Scholars who analyze transnational issues in a comparative context across different regions, promoting interdisciplinary approaches.

Question 193

What challenges do scholars face when integrating area studies with IR?

Answer 193

A significant challenge is developing concepts and insights from one regional context that hold analytical relevance beyond that region, which has historically been dominated by Eurocentric theories.

Question 194

How does the text suggest that area-based knowledge contributes to IR?

Answer 194

Area-based knowledge is essential for understanding transnational relations, global NGOs, and social movements. It helps bridge the gap between traditional area studies and discipline-based IR investigations.

Question 195

What are the implications of recognizing diverse regionalisms?

Answer 195

Acknowledging the diversity of regionalisms enriches the field of Global IR by allowing for a broader range of perspectives and solutions to global challenges, reflecting the interconnectedness and variety of regional contexts.

Question 196

What is international relations?

Answer 196

International relation studies the behaviours of state,
non-state, individuals and groups, such local, national
and supranational governmental organisations,
private militaries, social movements, NGOs and
corporation

Question 197

Division of IR?

Answer 197

International Political economy
International security

Question 198

what form of global orders are there?

Answer 198

Unipolar anarchy- this system is reflective of a
realist perspective since there are no ties between
nations, only strength

Hegemonic system of influence without direct
control

Liberal system based on world institutions

Imperial structure with several peripheries

Question 199

What are John Locke’s key contributions to liberal theory in International Relations?

Answer 199

John Locke, a 17th-century philosopher, is often considered a foundational figure in liberal thought. His contributions include the ideas of natural rights, social contract theory, and the importance of individual liberty. In the context of international relations, Locke’s belief in the consent of the governed underpins the notion of sovereignty and the legitimacy of governments. His ideas advocate for the protection of life, liberty, and property, influencing the principles of democratic governance and international cooperation based on mutual respect for rights.

Question 200

How did Jeremy Bentham’s utilitarianism influence liberal thought in IR?

Answer 200

Jeremy Bentham, a key figure in the development of utilitarianism, emphasized the greatest happiness principle, arguing that actions should be judged based on their consequences for overall well-being. In international relations, his ideas promote the importance of collective welfare and the need for policies that maximize benefits for the greatest number. Bentham’s emphasis on rationality and ethics informs liberal thought by advocating for international laws and institutions aimed at fostering peace and cooperation, aligning with the liberal belief in progress and reform.

Question 201

What role does Immanuel Kant play in liberal internationalism?

Answer 201

Immanuel Kant is pivotal to liberal internationalism, particularly through his essay “Perpetual Peace,” where he argues for a federation of free states to ensure lasting peace. Kant’s ideas about categorical imperatives suggest that states should act according to universal moral laws, promoting the idea of cosmopolitanism in IR. His belief in the possibility of achieving peace through democratic governance and international cooperation has significantly influenced liberal theories advocating for institutions like the United Nations and the promotion of human rights.

Question 202

What insights does Michael Doyle provide regarding the liberal peace theory?

Answer 202

Michael Doyle is known for his contributions to the liberal peace theory, which posits that liberal democracies are less likely to go to war with one another. His work builds on Kantian ideas, emphasizing that democratic states tend to resolve conflicts through negotiation and are more inclined to form alliances based on shared values. Doyle’s scholarship highlights the importance of domestic political structures in shaping foreign policy, reinforcing the liberal belief in the link between democracy, peace, and international stability.

Question 203

What are E.H. Carr’s critiques of liberalism in IR?

Answer 203

E.H. Carr is often seen as a critic of classical liberalism in international relations, particularly in his seminal work “The Twenty Years’ Crisis.” Carr argues that liberalism is overly idealistic and neglects the realities of power politics. He emphasizes the role of state interests, the anarchic nature of the international system, and the importance of understanding the balance of power. His critique challenges liberals to consider the limitations of cooperative approaches in a world where power and conflict are prevalent.

Question 204

How does G. John Ikenberry’s work contribute to the understanding of liberal hegemony?

Answer 204

G. John Ikenberry’s work focuses on the concept of liberal hegemony, particularly in the context of post-World War II international order. He argues that the United States has established a liberal international order characterized by open markets, democratic governance, and multilateral institutions. Ikenberry posits that this order has provided stability and peace, enabling states to cooperate and benefit from economic interdependence. His analysis highlights how liberal hegemony can contribute to global order while addressing challenges to that order from rising powers.

Question 205

What are the key aspects of Max Weber’s influence on realist theory?

Answer 205

Max Weber’s contributions to realism primarily come from his understanding of power and authority. He emphasized the importance of the state as a primary actor in international relations, asserting that the state holds a monopoly on legitimate violence. Weber’s ideas on bureaucracy and rationalization also influence how states operate and interact with one another. His emphasis on the rational pursuit of interests aligns with the realist view that states act primarily in their national interests, thus laying the groundwork for future realist theorists.

Question 206

How did Hans J. Morgenthau shape the foundations of realist theory?

Answer 206

emphasizing that politics is governed by objective laws rooted in human nature. Morgenthau argues that states are primarily motivated by national interests defined in terms of power, and he highlights the inevitability of conflict in an anarchic international system. His work establishes a moral dimension to realism,

Question 207

What are Kenneth Waltz’s key contributions to realist theory, particularly structural realism?

Answer 207

Kenneth Waltz is the primary architect of structural realism (or neorealism), articulated in his influential book Theory of International Politics (1979). Waltz distinguishes between classical realism, which focuses on human nature, and structural realism, which emphasizes the anarchic structure of the international system. He argues that the distribution of power among states is the primary determinant of state behavior, and this structure compels states to act in ways that ensure their survival. His emphasis on systemic factors reshapes realist theory, shifting the focus from individual state behavior to the international system’s broader dynamics.

Question 208

How does Thomas Hobbes’s philosophy contribute to realist thought?

Answer 208

Thomas Hobbes’s work, especially in Leviathan (1651), lays the groundwork for many realist concepts. Hobbes argues that in a state of nature, individuals act in self-interest, leading to a “war of all against all” without a central authority. This notion parallels the anarchic nature of the international system, where states are constantly in competition for power and security. Hobbes’s focus on the human condition, power, and security influences later realists, who view international relations as a struggle for power and survival in an anarchic environment.

Question 209

What are the main contributions of Niccolò Machiavelli to the realist theory of International Relations?

Answer 209

Niccolò Machiavelli, particularly in his work The Prince (1513), is considered a precursor to modern realist thought. He emphasizes the importance of pragmatic and often ruthless political leadership in maintaining power and security. Machiavelli’s assertion that the ends justify the means resonates with realist perspectives that prioritize state interests over moral considerations. His ideas on the nature of power, the necessity of political cunning, and the often dark realities of political life inform many of the foundational principles of realism.

Question 210

How does Thucydides contribute to the foundations of realist thought in International Relations?

Answer 210

Thucydides, through his work History of the Peloponnesian War, offers critical insights into power politics and human behavior. His analysis of the conflict between Athens and Sparta illustrates the inevitability of war driven by power struggles, fear, and self-interest—core tenets of realist thought. Thucydides’s assertion that “the strong do what they can and the weak suffer what they must” encapsulates the realist perspective on the anarchic nature of international relations and the pursuit of power. His historical account emphasizes the importance of material power and strategic calculation in politics.

Question 211

What are John Mearsheimer’s key contributions to the realist theory of International Relations?

Answer 211

John Mearsheimer is known for his advocacy of offensive realism, which he articulates in The Tragedy of Great Power Politics (2001). Mearsheimer argues that the anarchic nature of the international system compels great powers to seek dominance to ensure their survival, leading to aggressive behavior and potential conflict. He emphasizes the importance of power maximization and strategic behavior, challenging the more defensive stance of other realists. Mearsheimer’s ideas contribute to the understanding of international conflict and competition among states, reinforcing the central tenet of realism that international relations are characterized by an ongoing struggle for power.

Question 212

Who is Alexander Wendt, and what are his main contributions to constructivist theory in International Relations?

Answer 212

Alexander Wendt is a prominent scholar in constructivist theory, best known for his work “Social Theory of International Politics” (1999). Wendt argues that the structure of the international system is socially constructed rather than solely material. His famous assertion that “anarchy is what states make of it” suggests that the meanings and practices that states assign to their interactions are crucial in shaping international outcomes. Wendt emphasizes the role of identities and norms in shaping state behavior and posits that international relations cannot be understood without considering the social contexts in which they occur.

Question 213

What contributions did Martha Finnemore make to constructivist theory?

Answer 213

Martha Finnemore is well-known for her work on the role of norms and international organizations in shaping state behavior. In her influential book “National Interests in International Society” (1996), she argues that national interests are not just given but are socially constructed through interactions within international norms and institutions. Finnemore and her co-author, Kathryn Sikkink, also contributed significantly to the understanding of norm dynamics in their article “International Norm Dynamics and Political Change” (1998), where they outline how norms emerge, spread, and influence state behavior over time, emphasizing the significance of norm entrepreneurs.

Question 214

How does Peter Katzenstein’s work contribute to the constructivist understanding of international relations?

Answer 214

Peter Katzenstein is notable for his examination of how culture and identity affect national security and foreign policy. In his edited volume “Culture of National Security” (1996), he explores how different cultures influence security policies in various states. Katzenstein argues that security is not only a matter of material capabilities but also of cultural perceptions and historical experiences. His work illustrates that states’ identities and the cultural context in which they operate significantly shape their interests and actions in the international arena.

Question 215

How does Alastair Iain Johnston’s work contribute to constructivist theories in IR?

Answer 215

Alastair Iain Johnston’s contributions to constructivist theories are particularly evident in his examination of how cultural and historical contexts influence state behavior. In his book “Social States: China in International Relations Theory” (2008), Johnston analyzes how China’s identity and historical experiences shape its foreign policy behavior. He critiques overly simplistic constructivist explanations and emphasizes the need to understand the specific historical and cultural factors that influence states’ identities and interests. His work enriches constructivist theory by integrating insights from culture and history into the analysis of international relations.

Question 216

How does Cynthia Enloe’s work on gender roles in war contribute to constructivist theory?

Answer 216

Enloe argues that the assumptions surrounding women’s vulnerability during war are socially constructed rather than inherent truths. By highlighting the ways in which militarized masculinity and femininity are formed, she underscores that gender roles are fluid and can influence international relations. Enloe’s analysis suggests that understanding these roles is crucial for comprehending how conflicts are framed and how women are often marginalized in peace processes. This aligns with constructivism’s focus on how identities and norms shape state behavior and international outcomes.

Question 217

What does Belkin’s focus on military training and hypermasculinity reveal about the social construction of gender in military contexts?

Answer 217

Belkin’s exploration of hypermasculinity in military training shows how gender norms are constructed and reinforced within military institutions. This focus on hypermasculinity shapes soldiers’ identities and behaviors, impacting their interactions both on the battlefield and in civilian life. In the constructivist framework, this demonstrates how institutional practices and social norms create gendered expectations that influence military effectiveness and the experiences of service members, highlighting the role of socialization in shaping individual identities and behaviors in international security contexts.

Question 218

In what way does Whitworth’s research on psychological impacts contribute to our understanding of masculinity in war?

Answer 218

Whitworth’s examination of the psychological toll of masculinity on soldiers reveals how societal expectations can lead to detrimental mental health outcomes. This reinforces constructivist views by showing that gender norms not only shape behavior but also have tangible effects on individuals and their interactions. By illustrating the psychological impact of conforming to masculine ideals, Whitworth’s work emphasizes the need to re-evaluate these norms to foster healthier identities and improve soldiers’ well-being, which is vital for broader peace and security discussions.

Question 219

How does A. Phillips’ examination of essentialism in gender roles contribute to constructivist theory?

Answer 219

A. Phillips critiques essentialist views that reduce gender roles to fixed characteristics, arguing that such notions ignore the complexities of identity and the social constructs surrounding gender. This perspective aligns with constructivism by emphasizing that gender is not predetermined but is constructed through social practices and relations. Recognizing the fluidity of gender roles can help reshape policies and attitudes in international relations, facilitating a deeper understanding of how gender dynamics influence global issues.

Question 220

How do Greenwald and Summerfield’s studies on women’s workforce participation during the World Wars challenge traditional narratives in IR?

Answer 220

Both Greenwald and Summerfield document how women’s labor was crucial during the World Wars, challenging the narrative that war primarily concerns male soldiers. Their work illustrates how women’s participation in the workforce during these periods was not only a response to necessity but also altered perceptions of women’s roles in society. This challenges the traditional IR focus on state actors and military engagements by highlighting the importance of social change and economic contributions made by women, reinforcing constructivist views on the role of social norms and identities in shaping international dynamics.

Question 221

What does Milkman’s discussion of the sexual division of labor reveal about gendered perceptions in the workforce?

Answer 221

Milkman explores how the sexual division of labor reinforces gendered perceptions that devalue women’s work. This contributes to constructivist theory by demonstrating that labor roles are not inherently tied to gender but are socially constructed, affecting both economic relations and individual identities. Understanding these constructions is essential for addressing inequalities in the workforce and for developing policies that promote gender equity in international economic relations.

Question 222

How does Kabeer’s analysis of the economic impact of gendered labor and globalization enhance constructivist perspectives?

Answer 222

Kabeer examines how globalization affects gendered labor practices, revealing that economic structures often marginalize women’s contributions. This work enriches constructivist perspectives by highlighting how economic policies and practices are shaped by social constructions of gender, leading to systemic inequalities. By emphasizing the interplay between gender, labor, and globalization, Kabeer underscores the need to rethink economic policies within the context of gender relations in international development.

Question 223

In what ways does Ramamurthy’s examination of feminized labor contribute to understanding gender in global contexts?

Answer 223

Ramamurthy’s analysis of feminized labor illustrates how certain types of work are gendered, often placing women in precarious positions with limited rights and recognition. This aligns with constructivist theory by highlighting how social constructions of gender influence labor markets and economic opportunities. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for addressing gender disparities in global labor practices and for promoting more equitable international economic policies.

Question 224

How does Peterson’s discussion of reproductive versus productive economies challenge traditional economic theories?

Answer 224

Peterson’s exploration of reproductive versus productive economies reveals the undervaluation of women’s work, particularly in caregiving and domestic roles. This challenges traditional economic theories that prioritize paid labor, suggesting that such frameworks ignore significant contributions to economic stability and growth. From a constructivist perspective, this work underscores the need to reconceptualize economic value to include gendered dimensions, which can inform more equitable policies and practices in international relations.

Question 225

What insights do Acker’s findings on the gendered dimensions of the economy offer to constructivist theory?

Answer 225

Acker’s research highlights how economic structures and practices are inherently gendered, shaping the experiences of men and women differently within the economy. This insight is crucial for constructivist theory, as it underscores the role of social constructs in influencing economic relationships and power dynamics. By revealing how gender shapes economic policies and practices, Acker’s work emphasizes the need to consider gender in discussions of economic governance and international relations.

Question 226

How does True’s investigation of economic circumstances and gendered violence inform constructivist understandings of security?

Answer 226

True’s research connects economic conditions with instances of gendered violence, illustrating how structural inequalities can exacerbate violence against women. This informs constructivist understandings of security by highlighting that security is not merely about military might but is also rooted in social and economic structures. Recognizing the links between economic circumstances and gendered violence allows for a more comprehensive approach to security that includes addressing social norms and inequalities.

Question 227

What do Langer et al.’s estimates of the economic value of women’s unpaid contributions reveal about the broader implications of gender in international relations?

Answer 227

Langer et al. quantify the economic contributions of women’s unpaid labor, emphasizing its significance in global healthcare and economic systems. This research highlights the importance of recognizing and valuing unpaid labor, challenging traditional economic models that often ignore these contributions. From a constructivist standpoint, acknowledging these roles can lead to more inclusive policies and practices in international relations, fostering gender equity and recognizing the integral role of women in sustaining economies and societies.

Question 228

Barry Buzan English school

Answer 228

Buzan is a contemporary scholar who has refined and developed the Engl ish School
framework. He emphasized the need for a more sophisticated analysis of the international system
and its relationship to international society. His 2004 work critiqued and expanded Bul l ’s ideas,
particularly on systemic interactions and how material factors shape international relations.

Question 229

Adam Watson English school

Answer 229

Watson was an Engl ish School scholar who, l ike Wight and Bul l , focused on the
historical evolution of international society and the balance of power. His 1992 work explored the
dynamics of balancing power within the international system, especial ly under conditions of anarchy.

Question 230

R. J. Vincent English school

Answer 230

: Vincent focused on the intersection of human rights and international relations. His
work on world society, particularly human rights, was significant for extending the concept of
international society to include non-state actors and individuals. He discussed how human rights had
exposed the internal regimes of states to external scrutiny

Question 231

Ken Booth English school

Answer 231

Booth is a critical international relations theorist, known for his critiques of traditional
state-centric approaches to international security. He argued for a more cosmopol itan perspective on
human rights and criticized the disconnect between global moral awareness and the indifference of
state el ites, especial ly in the context of the post-9/1 1 era.

Question 232

Andrew Linklater English school

Answer 232

Linklater is a key figure in the Engl ish School and critical
international theory. He has written extensively on the evolution of international society, focusing on
the role of moral and ethical concerns, including human rights and justice, in shaping global pol itics.

Question 233

Laclau and Mouffe poststructuralism

Answer 233

Known for their influential book Hegemony and Social ist Strategy, they
introduced the idea that “nothing exists outside of discourse.

Question 234

Judith Butler poststructuralism

Answer 234

In Bodies That Matter, Butler explored the concept of performativity,
suggesting that discourse stabilizes over time to produce effects like boundaries and identities, and
that discursive practices help materialize social phenomena

Question 235

Alexander Wendt poststructuralism

Answer 235

In Social Theory of International Politics, Wendt argued from a
constructivist perspective that material reality (e.g. , a bullet) has an undeniable existence external to
discourse, challenging the poststructuralist emphasis on the discursive constitution of meaning.

Question 236

Foucault poststructuralism

Answer 236

genealogy, discourse

Question 237

Derrida poststructuralism

Answer 237

Deconstruction

Question 238

Rob Walker poststructuralism

Answer 238

: In Inside/Outside: International Relations as Pol itical Theory, Walker critiqued the
real ist tradition in international relations, arguing that it was based on a narrow and ahistorical
reading of figures l ike Machiavel l i , and chal lenged the binary oppositions that structure real ist
thought

Question 239

Michael Shapiro poststructuralism

Answer 239

Shapiro examines how U.S. foreign pol icy, particularly towards Central
America, constructed the region as “other,” legitimating intervention.

Question 240

David Campbell poststructuralism

Answer 240

Campbell analyzed how U.S. foreign pol icy discursively constructs
threats and dangers in the external world to secure the identity of the state, showing how the
practices of statecraft produce the identity of the state itself.