Component 1, Part 2- Conservatism (Chapter 2)

Question 1

1) What is the key core value of conservatism?
2) Which key thinkers are associated with this value?

Answer 1

1) Pragmatism - which rejects theory and ideology in favour of practical experience. The approach to society should be flexible, with decisions made on the basis of what works.
2) Thinkers such as Edmund Burke and Michael Oakeshott are associated with pragmatism.

Question 2

How is Conservative preference for pragmatism strongly linked to human rationality?

Answer 2

1) Strongly linked to their human rationality.
2) They contend that humans lack the intellectual ability and powers of reasoning to fully comprehend the complex realities of the world.
3) As a result, they tend to dismiss abstract ideas, theories and ideologies that claim to explain or improve human life and development.

Question 3

What are conservative views on human rights, a classless society and equality?

Answer 3

1) They view that these principles are dangerous because they can promote a radical reordering of society (often through revolution) that leads to worse rather than better conditions.

Question 4

What do critics argue about pragmatism?

Answer 4

1) Pragmatism reveals a lack of political principle and encourages politicians to follow rather than lead public opinion.

Question 5

1) Which strands of conservatism are linked to pragmatism?

Answer 5

1) Traditional and one nation conservatism.

Question 6

How do traditional conservatives view pragmatism?

Answer 6

1) Traditional conservatives such as Burke believed that:
- pragmatism was an essential element in facilitating natural or inevitable change within a state or society.
- He also believed that cautious pragmatism would bring about necessary change peacefully, through evolution, wheres the unbending pursuit of revolution or reaction would lead to conflict and chaos.
- Key features of society can only be preserved through pragmatic policies taking into account shifting circumstances and recognises occasions when it is necessary to change to conserve.

Question 7

How do one nation conservatives view pragmatism?

Answer 7

1) One nation conservatives hold similar attitudes to social reform.
2) However, they have also adopted a pragmatic ‘middle way’ approach to the economy that combines market competition with government regulation.
3) These conservatives argue that this moderate economic course promotes growth and social harmony by encouraging wealth creation through private enterprise and generating the funding for state welfare programmes.

Question 8

What was the traditional conservative justification for tradition?

Answer 8

1) Religious roots. Conservatives who believed that the world was created by a divine being saw society’s institutions and practices of society as ‘God-given’.
2) Humans who attempt to alter these longstanding social arrangements are challenging the will of God and consequently are likely to undermine society, rather than improve it.

Question 9

What has happened to religious fundamental beliefs put forward towards tradition?

Answer 9

1) Has been severely weakened by the impact of the Enlightenment thinking from the 18th century and the incorporation of obviously man-made innovations over time, such as representative democracy.

Question 10

What are the two modern day conservative arguments for the value of of tradition?

Answer 10

1) - Conservatives maintain that the tradition constitutes the accumulated wisdom of the past. According to this view, the institutions, customs and practices of the past (eg: the monarchy, heterosexual marriage) have demonstrated their value to earlier societies as they have proved ‘fit for purpose’ over time and survived.
- Reform or change can only be justified it it evolves naturally in a peaceful, gradual way in order to strengthen existing institutions, customs and practices.
2) - Conservatives champion tradition because in their view it provides society and the individual with a strong sense of identity.
- Long established institutions, customs and practices are familiar and provide individuals with a historically based sense of belonging to a particular society.
- Tradition fosters social cohesion and security because it offers humans a reassuring collective sense of who they are, and establishes powerful ties between people and specific societies.
- Any attempt to implement radical, wide ranging changes will cut people off from the ‘traditional’ basis of society inevitably leading to instability, anxiety and insecurity.

Question 11

What is the conservative view on human nature?

Answer 11

1) Conservatives have a pessimistic view of human nature, arguing that people are flawed and incapable of reaching state of perfection. Conservatism also asserts that human nature is immutable.
2) Human imperfection has to be kept in check due to the human capacity for evil.

Question 12

What do conservatives also stress to do with human imperfection?

Answer 12

1) A tough stance on law and order is required to deter criminal behaviour.
2) As human nature cannot be transformed, foreign policy has to be based on national security rather than ‘liberal’ notions of international co-operation and harmony.
3) Human behaviour is competitive, so any successful political system will recognise that self-interest is a more powerful motivator than altruism.

Question 13

How are humans flawed according to conservatives?

Answer 13

1) Psychologically
2) Morally
3) Intellectually

Question 14

What do conservatives believe about an organic society/state?

Answer 14

1) People cannot exist separately from society as a whole or from social groups, such as the family or the local community.
2) Society and social groups provide individuals with a sense of scrutiny and purpose, and prevent the development of anomie.
3) Humans accept the duties, responsibilities and bonds that go with belonging to society or social groups, such as being a caring parent, a considerate neighbour, or a respectful son or daughter. For conservatives, this represents true freedom.
4) If people didn’t acknowledge and act on these responsibilities and bonds, human society would lack social cohesion and descend into atomism.

Question 15

Explain the psychological aspect of human imperfection.

Answer 15

1) Humans are limited and dependent.
2) People crave safety, familiarity and the security of knowing their designated place in society. This view places a premium on social order rather than liberty because order provides humans with much needed security, predictability and stability.
3) In contrast, liberty raises the prospect of choice, change and uncertainty. For this reason, conservatives have frequently endorsed Hobbes’ argument that social order has to come before liberty.

Question 16

Explain the moral aspect of human imperfection.

Answer 16

1) Humans are morally imperfect because they are naturally selfish and greedy.
2) Anti social or criminal behaviour is due to basic human nature and cannot be attributed to economic or social disadvantage.
3) A robust law and order system that imposes severe sanctions on such conduct is the only effective deterrent to combat the moral imperfections of humans.

Question 17

Explain the intellectual aspect of human imperfection.

Answer 17

1) The intellect and reasoning of humans are limited.
2) Humans do not possess the mental faculties to make sense of a complex modern world.
3) Conservatives reject overarching theories or ideologies that claim to explain or predict the development of human society.
4) Instead humans need to draw on tradition, history and practical experience to understand their place in the world.

Question 18

What is organicism?

Answer 18

1) The idea of organic society or state.
2) Views society as a living organism, with all its parts working together in harmony to ensure that the ‘body’ remains healthy

Question 19

What are two important considerations of an organic society?

Answer 19

1) Internal elements of an organic society or state cannot be randomly reconfigured. Like a living creature, an organic society is maintained by a delicate set of relationships between these elements. If this balance is disturbed, then society could be destroyed.
2) Organic Society is based on natural needs and instincts such as affection, security and concern, rather than an ideological blueprint devised by political theorists.

Question 20

What 2 beliefs underpin the idea of organic society?

Answer 20

1) Hierarchy and authority.

Question 21

What does Conservatism think about authority?

Answer 21

1) The hierarchical structure of organic society is reinforced by authority. Conservatism contends that authority operates in a top-down manner, shapes relations between the different social groups and permeates all social institutions.
2) Conservatives argue that authority performs a vital and positive function by providing humans with security, direction and support. Authority also promotes social cohesion by giving people a clear sense of how they fit in and what they are expected to do.

Question 22

What does conservatism think about hierarchy?

Answer 22

1) Traditionally, society is naturally hierarchical - it is based on fixed social ranks and inequalities.

Question 23

What is the conservative idea of paternalism?

Answer 23

1) Paternalism is the idea of governing people who are best equipped to lead by virtue of their birth, inheritance and upbringing.

Question 24

What do traditional conservative’s argue about paternalism?

Answer 24

1) Burke argued that ‘natural aristocracy’ presided over society much like a father did over his family.
2) The social elite provides leadership because of its innate abilities, just as a father exercises authority, ensures protection and provides guidance.
3) Those at the top of society have a duty to care for the lower social ranks

Question 25

What is the difference between soft and hard paternalism?

Answer 25

1) soft paternalism is when those who are the recipients give their consent.
2) hard paternalism is when paternalism is imposed, regardless of consent or opposition.

Question 26

What role does Disraeli have in terms of paternalism? What did he believe?

Answer 26

1) Usually traces back to the works of Disraeli.
2) Disraeli warned people that Britain was dividing into 2 nations - the rich and the poor - and that this increased the likelihood of social revolution.
3) The only way that this situation could be avoided was through the privileged in society recognising their social obligation to look after the less fortunate

Question 27

How did paternalism build the building blocks for conservative economic policy during the 1950s and 60s?

Answer 27

1) By the mid 20th century, one nation conservatism had added a ‘middle way’ economic approach to social reform in its pursuit of paternalistic policies.
2) The moderate Tory governments of the 50s and 60s steered a central course between free-market economics and state planning. Macmillan: ‘private enterprise without selfishness’.

Question 28

How does Neo-liberalism feel about paternalism?

Answer 28

1) Neo-liberalism rejects the idea of paternalism.
2) It aims to reduce the size of the state so that the unregulated market can generate a more dynamic and efficient economy leading to increased growth and prosperity.
3) Therefore, government intervention in the economy or state control undermines human initiative and enterprise resulting in economic stagnation.

Question 29

How long has Libertarian (rights to individual liberty) been evident in conservative thinking?

Answer 29

1) Since the late 18th century, influenced by Adam Smith’s arguments for economic liberalism.
2) Burke advocated free trade and market economy on the grounds that such arrangements were efficient, just and natural.

Question 30

What does Neo-liberalism believe? Who is it associated with?

Answer 30

1) Associated with the policies of Margaret Thatcher and US President Ronald Reagan.
2) Neo-liberalism rejects state intervention and champions the free-market economy, fundamentally opposing keynesian-style demand managament.

Question 31

How does Neo-liberalism explain its economic beliefs?

Answer 31

1) They believe that the free market is the only mechanism than can efficiently supply goods and services on the basis of consumer demand.
2) They consider inflation to be the biggest threat to the economy. To combat inflation, neo-liberal thinkers call for government spending cuts to control the money supply.
3) It also justifies its opposition to state intervention by calling for individual liberty.

Question 32

What are Neo-liberal moral objections to state welfare?

Answer 32

1) State welfare programmes create a ‘dependency culture’ by depriving people of self respect and dignity, and undermining personal responsibility and initiative.
2) Policies to provide welfare services and redistribute income undermines property rights.

Question 33

What is the new right? What are its factions and what wre its ideological beliefs?

Answer 33

1) New right is a strand of conservatism which gathered momentum from the mid 1970’s, as a rival to one nation conservatism.
2) There are two factions: the liberal new right and the conservative new right.
3) The liberal new right is a modernised version of classical liberalism. The conservative new rights is an updated form of traditional conservative social thinking.

Question 34

What were the Neo-liberal and Neo-conservative features of Thatcherism?

Answer 34

1) Neo-liberal:
- tight control of money supply through monetarist policies.
- privatisation of state controlled industries.
- promotion of free market policies of deregulation.
- the belief that trade union power was endangering UKs economic competitiveness led to anti-union legislation.
2) Neo-conservative:
- defence of traditional values including support for heterosexual marriage and the nuclear family
- strong law and order policies based on support for police and punitive criminal justice
- section 28: law prohibiting promotion of homosexuality.
- determination to protect public morailty.

Question 35

What does the Liberal New right call for?

Answer 35

1) a minimal state
2) self-reliant individuals
- rejection of collectivism
- elimination of government intervention.

Question 36

Which economists promoted Neo-liberalism?

Answer 36

1) Milton Friedman and Friedrich Hayek.

Question 37

What is atomistic individualism and how does this link to Neo-liberalism?

Answer 37

1) the idea that individuals are rational, self-interested and self-sufficient.
2) Neo-liberalism advocates this idea

Question 38

What do Neo-conservatives mainly focus on?

Answer 38

1) Focus on the need to uphold social order and protect public morality.
2) Since the 1960s authority and respect have declined in western nations, leading to higher crime figures and increases rates of anti-social behaviour.

Question 39

What is conservative thinking about human nature?

Answer 39

1) Pessimistic. Humans are imperfect, and their nature cannot be changed through altering economic, political or social conditions.
2) Without firm government and a tough criminal justice system, human behaviour would deteriorate.
3) Capitalism is the only viable economic system since it aligns with humanity’s competitive nature.

Question 40

What is conservative thinking about the state?

Answer 40

1) One nation conservatives: state is neutral and its main goal is to preserve social order through welfare, economic intervention and defence of traditional institutions & values.
2) Neo-liberals calls for the rolling back of the state on the grounds that state intervention stifles economic initiative and growth creates a debilitating dependency culture.
3) Neo-conservatives agree that the state should be rolled back.

Question 41

What is conservative thinking about society?

Answer 41

1) Traditional + one nation conservatives have an organic view of society. All parts of it work harmoniously to ensure a healthy ‘social body’. Such a society rests on the belief in hierarchy and authority. Paternalism towards the less fortunate.
2) Neo-liberal conservatives view society as composed of independent and rational individuals operating within a free market.

Question 42

What is conservative thinking about the economy?

Answer 42

1) All conservatives favour private enterprise.
2) One nation conservatives endorse limited interventionist economic management techniques maintain employment levels, a mixed economy of public/private concerns and welfare programmes.
2) Neo-conservatives and Neo-liberals argue that the states role in the economy has to be reduced.
3) Neo-liberals call for a free market economy on the grounds that it is the best way to meet consumer demand and generate prosperity.