Compendium 1, 2, 3 Flashcards
Define Anatomy
Scientific discipline that investigates the structure of body parts and how they relate to each other.
- E.g. shape and size of bones
Derived from the Greek word anatemnō = “I cut up, cut open”
Define Physiology
Study of the function of living things
Levels of Anatomy
- Gross anatomy (macroscopic): structures examined without the aid of a microscope
a) Systemic: body is studied system by system (respiratory)
- System is a group of structures that have one or more common functions, such as the cardiovascular, nervous, respiratory, skeletal, or muscular systems.
b) Regional: body is studied area by area
- Within each region, such as the head, abdomen, or arm, all systems are studied simultaneously
Surface
o
Study of external form of the body and its relation to deeper structures
•
Using surface landmarks which indicate deeper structures eg sternum and
ribs to identify different parts of the heart
o
A form of macroscopic/gross anatomy
Surface
o
Study of external form of the body and its relation to deeper structures
•
Using surface landmarks which indicate deeper structures eg sternum and
ribs to identify different parts of the heart
o
A form of macroscopic/gross anatomy - Surface: Study of the external form of the body and its relation to deeper structures
- Using surface landmarks which indicate deeper structures e.g. sternum and ribs to identify different regions of the heart
- A form of macroscopic/gross anatomy - Microscopic: Structures examined with the aid of a microscope e.g. cytology, histology
- Cytology examines the structural features of cells
- Histology examines tissues, which are composed of cells and the materials surrounding them. - Developmental: Structural changes that occur in the body throughout the life span
- studies the structural changes that occur between conception and adulthood
Levels of Physiology
Molecular Cellular Systemic Neurophysiology Renal Cardiovascular, etc
Cell physiology examines the processes occurring in cells, and systemic physiology considers the functions of organ systems.
Neurophysiology focuses on the nervous system, and cardiovascular
physiology deals with the heart and blood vessels.
Describe the six levels of organisation in the body
chemical Level:
- The chemical level involves interactions between atoms (tiny building blocks of matter)
- Atoms combine to form molecules, such as water, sugar, lipids, and proteins. The function of a molecule is intimately related to its structure.
- Atoms (e.g. carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen) combine to form molecules (e.g. DNA, RNA, sugar, water)
Cellular Level:
- Cells are the basic structural and functional units of plants and animals. Molecules combine to form organelles
- Molecules (e.g. DNA, RNA) combine to form organelles (e.g. nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, etc) of a cell
Tissue Level:
- A tissue is composed of a group of similar cells and the materials surrounding them. The characteristics of the cells and surrounding materials determine the functions of the tissue. The body is made up of four basic tissue types: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous.
- Numerous cells (e.g. smooth muscle cells) join together to form a tissue (e.g. smooth muscle tissue)
Organ Level:
- composed of two or more tissue types that perform one or more common functions.
- E.g. The urinary bladder, heart, stomach, lung
Organ System:
- group of organs that together perform a common function or set of functions and are therefore viewed as a unit. For example, the urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureter, urinary bladder, and urethra.
Organism Level:
- organism is any living thing considered as a whole—whether composed of one cell, such as a bacterium, or of trillions of cells, such as a human. The human organism is a network of organ systems, all mutually dependent on one another.
List the six characteristics of organisms
- Organisation: refers to the specific interrelationships among the parts of an organism and how those parts interact to perform specific functions.
- Metabolism: refers to all of the chemical reactions taking place in the cells and internal environment of an organism.
- Responsiveness: is an organism’s ability to sense changes in its external or internal environment and adjust to those changes.
- Growth: refers to an increase in the size or number of cells, which produces an overall enlargement of all or part of an organism.
- Development: includes the changes an organism undergoes through time, beginning with fertilization and ending at death. The greatest developmental changes occur before birth, but many changes continue after birth, and some go on throughout life.
- Reproduction: is the formation of new cells or new organisms. Without reproduction of cells, growth and development are not possible. Without reproduction of organisms, species become extinct.
Homeostasis
The existence and maintenance of a relatively constant environment within the body.
List the characteristics of the anatomical position
Anatomical position refers to a person standing erect with the face directed forward, the upper limbs hanging to the sides, and the palms of the hands facing forward.
Why?
- Gives us point of reference to describe different parts of the body
- To avoid confusion, relational descriptions are always based on the anatomical position, no matter the actual position of the body. Thus, the chest is always described as being “above” (superior to) the stomach, whether the person is lying down or is even upside down
Directional terms
Superior (cephalic)– Structure above another/higher
Inferior (Caudal)– Structure below another/lower
Anterior– The front of the body
Posterior– The back of the body
Dorsal – Towards the back
Ventral – Towards the belly
Medial– Towards the midline of the body
Lateral– Away from the midline of the body
Proximal– Used for limbs - Closer to the point of attachment
Distal– Used for limbs - Further from the point of attachment
Superficial– Toward or on the surface
Deep– Away from the surface, internal
Caudal– Closer to the tail
Cephalic– Closer to the cranium/head
What are the three planes in which the body or organs can be divided?
- Sagittal Plane:
- Runs vertically down the body separating the body into left and right portions
- Median = mid-sagittal
- A mid-sagittal plane will divide the body into two equal segments (e.g. through the nose). A parasagittal plane will divide the body into unequal segments (e.g. through a shoulder). - Frontal Plane:
- Aka coronal
- Runs vertically from right to left and divides the body into anterior and posterior - Transverse Plane
- Aka horizontal
- Runs parallel to the ground, dividing the body into superior and inferior portions.
Oblique:
- A plane that does not run parallel to the frontal or transverse plane
- Plane on an angle
Subdivisions of the abdomen
Right-Upper Quadrant (RUQ)
This Quadrant contains the following: Liver, Gall Bladder, Duodenum, Head of Pancreas, and
Hepatic Flexure of Colon.
Right-Lower Quadrant (RLQ)
This Quadrant contains the following: Cecum, Appendix, Ascending Colon, Right Ovary,
Fallopian Tube (Right Uterine Tube), and Right Ureter.
Le7-Upper Quadrant (LUQ)
This Quadrant contains the following: Stomach, Spleen, Left Lobe of Liver, Body of Pancreas,
Left Kidney, Adrenal Gland, Splenic Flexure of Colon, and Parts of Transverse and
Descending Colon.
Left-Lower Quadrant (LLQ)
This Quadrant contains the following: Descending Colon, Sigmoid Colon, Left Ovary, and
Fallopian Tube (Left Uterine Tube).
Right Hypochondriac Region
This Region contains the following: Liver, Gall Bladder, Small Intestine, Ascending Colon,
Transverse Colon, and Right Kidney.
Left Hypochondriac Region
This Region contains the following: Stomach, Liver (Tip), Pancreas (Tail of), Small Intestine,
Transverse Colon, Descending Colon, Left Kidney, and Spleen.
Epigastric Region
This Region contains the following: Oesophagus, Stomach, Liver, Pancreas, Small Intestine,
Transverse Colon, Right & Left Adrenal Glands, Right & Left Kidneys, Right & Left Ureters,
and Spleen.
Right Lumbar Region
This Region contains the following: Liver (Tip), Gall Bladder, Small Intestine, Ascending
Colon, and Right Kidney.
Right-Upper Quadrant (RUQ)
This Quadrant contains the following: Liver, Gall Bladder, Duodenum, Head of Pancreas, and
Hepatic Flexure of Colon.
Right-Lower Quadrant (RLQ)
This Quadrant contains the following: Cecum, Appendix, Ascending Colon, Right Ovary,
Fallopian Tube (Right Uterine Tube), and Right Ureter.
Left-Upper Quadrant (LUQ)
This Quadrant contains the following: Stomach, Spleen, Left Lobe of Liver, Body of Pancreas,
Left Kidney, Adrenal Gland, Splenic Flexure of Colon, and Parts of Transverse and
Descending Colon.
Left-Lower Quadrant (LLQ)
This Quadrant contains the following: Descending Colon, Sigmoid Colon, Left Ovary, and
Fallopian Tube (Left Uterine Tube).
Right Hypochondriac Region
This Region contains the following: Liver, Gall Bladder, Small Intestine, Ascending Colon,
Transverse Colon, and Right Kidney.
Left Hypochondriac Region
This Region contains the following: Stomach, Liver (Tip), Pancreas (Tail of), Small Intestine,
Transverse Colon, Descending Colon, Left Kidney, and Spleen.
Epigastric Region
This Region contains the following: Oesophagus, Stomach, Liver, Pancreas, Small Intestine,
Transverse Colon, Right & Left Adrenal Glands, Right & Left Kidneys, Right & Left Ureters,
and Spleen.
Right Lumbar Region
This Region contains the following: Liver (Tip), Gall Bladder, Small Intestine, Ascending
Colon, and Right Kidney.
Right-Upper Quadrant (RUQ)
This Quadrant contains the following: Liver, Gall Bladder, Duodenum, Head of Pancreas, and
Hepatic Flexure of Colon.
Right-Lower Quadrant (RLQ)
This Quadrant contains the following: Cecum, Appendix, Ascending Colon, Right Ovary,
Fallopian Tube (Right Uterine Tube), and Right Ureter.
Left-Upper Quadrant (LUQ)
This Quadrant contains the following: Stomach, Spleen, Left Lobe of Liver, Body of Pancreas,
Left Kidney, Adrenal Gland, Splenic Flexure of Colon, and Parts of Transverse and
Descending Colon.
Left-Lower Quadrant (LLQ)
This Quadrant contains the following: Descending Colon, Sigmoid Colon, Left Ovary, and
Fallopian Tube (Left Uterine Tube).
Right Hypochondriac Region
This Region contains the following: Liver, Gall Bladder, Small Intestine, Ascending Colon,
Transverse Colon, and Right Kidney.
Left Hypochondriac Region
This Region contains the following: Stomach, Liver (Tip), Pancreas (Tail of), Small Intestine,
Transverse Colon, Descending Colon, Left Kidney, and Spleen.
Epigastric Region
This Region contains the following: Oesophagus, Stomach, Liver, Pancreas, Small Intestine,
Transverse Colon, Right & Left Adrenal Glands, Right & Left Kidneys, Right & Left Ureters,
and Spleen.
Right Lumbar Region
This Region contains the following: Liver (Tip), Gall Bladder, Small Intestine, Ascending
Colon, and Right Kidney.
Right-Upper Quadrant (RUQ)
- This Quadrant contains the following: Liver, Gall Bladder, Duodenum, Head of Pancreas, and Hepatic Flexure of Colon.
Right-Lower Quadrant (RLQ)
- This Quadrant contains the following: Cecum, Appendix, Ascending Colon, Right Ovary, Fallopian Tube (Right Uterine Tube), and Right Ureter.
Left-Upper Quadrant (LUQ)
- This Quadrant contains the following: Stomach, Spleen, Left Lobe of Liver, Body of Pancreas, Left Kidney, Adrenal Gland, Splenic Flexure of Colon, and Parts of Transverse and Descending Colon.
Left-Lower Quadrant (LLQ)
- This Quadrant contains the following: Descending Colon, Sigmoid Colon, Left Ovary, and Fallopian Tube (Left Uterine Tube).
Right Hypochondriac Region
- This Region contains the following: Liver, Gall Bladder, Small Intestine, Ascending Colon, Transverse Colon, and Right Kidney.
Left Hypochondriac Region
- This Region contains the following: Stomach, Liver (Tip), Pancreas (Tail of), Small Intestine, Transverse Colon, Descending Colon, Left Kidney, and Spleen.
Epigastric Region
- This Region contains the following: Oesophagus, Stomach, Liver, Pancreas, Small Intestine, Transverse Colon, Right & Left Adrenal Glands, Right & Left Kidneys, Right & Left Ureters, and Spleen.
Right Lumbar Region
- This Region contains the following: Liver (Tip), Gall Bladder, Small Intestine, Ascending Colon, and Right Kidney.
Left Lumbar Region
- This Region contains the following: Small Intestine, Descending Colon, and Left Kidney (Tip).
Umbilical Region
- This Region contains the following: Stomach, Pancreas, Small Intestine, Transverse Colon, Right & Left Kidneys, and Right & Left Ureters.
Right Iliac Region
- This Region contains the following: Small Intestine, Appendix, Cecum, Ascending Colon, and Right Ovary (Females).
Left Iliac Region
- This Region contains the following: Small Intestine, Descending Colon, Sigmoid Colon, Left Ovary (Females), and Left Fallopian Tube (Females).
Hypogastric Region
- This Region contains the following: Small Intestine, Sigmoid Colon, Rectum, Right & Left Ovaries (Females), Right & Left Ureters, Uterus (Females), Right & Left Fallopian Tubes (Females), and Prostate (Male).
Describe the major body cavities and their divisions
- Thoracic Cavity:
- The rib cage surrounds the thoracic cavity, and the muscular diaphragm separates it from the abdominal cavity. The thoracic cavity is divided into right and left parts by a middle section called the mediastinum. - Abdominal Cavity:
- Abdominal muscles primarily enclose the abdominal cavity, which contains the stomach, the intestines, the liver, the spleen, the pancreas, and the kidneys. - Pelvic Cavity:
- Pelvic bones encase the small space known as the pelvic cavity, where the urinary bladder, part of the large intestine, and the internal reproductive organs are housed. The abdominal and pelvic cavities are not physically separated and sometimes are called the abdominopelvic cavity.
Describe the properties of serous membranes
Also known as serosa
Serous membranes line the cavities in the trunk of the body and cover the organs within these cavities
2 layers:
- parietal layer lines the trunk cavity (outer)
- visceral layer lines the organs (inner)
Serous fluid produced by the membrane fills the cavity between the two layers and acts as a lubricant between the organ and body wall
Heart = pericardium
Lungs and thoracic cavity = pleura
Abdominopelvic cavity = peritoneum
The cavity, or space, between the visceral and parietal serous membranes is normally filled with a thin, lubricating film of serous fluid produced by the membranes. As organs rub against the body wall or against
another organ, the combination of serous fluid and smooth serous membranes reduces friction.
The cell
Structural and functional unit of all living things, including humans
Functional characteristics of cells
- Cell metabolism and energy use
- Cell metabolism involves all chemical reactions that occur within a cell. These metabolic reactions often involve energy transfers, meaning the energy released by one reaction is then used in another reaction. - Synthesis of molecules
- The different cells of the body synthesize, or produce, various types of molecules, including proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. The structural and functional characteristics of cells are determined by the types of molecules they produce. - Communication
- Cells communicate with each other by using chemical and electrical signals. - Reproduction and inheritance
- Most cells contain a complete copy of all the genetic information of the individual. This genetic information ultimately determines the structural and functional characteristics of the cell.
Distinguish between the cytoplasm, cytosol, and cytoskeleton
Cytoskeleton
- Consists of structural protein filaments that give shape to a cell, provide strength, stabilise the position of organelles and assist in cell movement.
Cytosol
- Intracellular fluid, containing a mixture of water, salts, dissolved ions and organic molecules.
Cytoplasm
- The cell components outside the nucleus but inside the plasma membrane. All the intracellular fluid plus all the organelles, except the nucleus.
Describe the structure and the role of the cell (plasma) membrane
Function:
- Encloses and supports cellular contents
- Controls what goes into the cell and what comes out
- Role in inter-cellular (cell-to-cell) communication Plasma membrane
Structure:
- Lipid bilayer (phospholipids bilayer and cholesterol) (45-50%)
- Provides flexibility to the cell
- Carbohydrates (4-8%)
- Proteins (45-50%)
- Glycocalyx (outer surface of cell membrane)
Glycoproteins (carbohydrates and proteins)
Glycolipids (carbohydrates and lipids)
Carbohydrates
The predominant lipids of the plasma membrane are phospholipids and cholesterol. Phospholipids readily assemble to form a lipid bilayer, a double layer of phospholipid molecules, because they have a polar (charged) head and a nonpolar (uncharged) tail. The polar heads are attracted to water molecules, so they are also called hydrophilic (water-loving) heads. The polar, hydrophilic heads are exposed to the aqueous extracellular and intracellular fluids of the cell. The tails of the phospholipids are nonpolar and are not attracted to water molecules, so the tails are also called hydrophobic (water-fearing). The nonpolar, hydrophobic tails face
one another in the interior of the plasma membrane. The fluid-mosaic model of the plasma membrane describes the plasma membrane as being neither rigid nor static in structure.
Cholesterol is the other major lipid. It is interspersed among the phospholipids and accounts
for about one-third of the total lipids in the plasma membrane. The hydrophilic hydroxyl (–OH) group of cholesterol extends between the phospholipid heads to the hydrophilic surface of the membrane, whereas the hydrophobic part of the cholesterol molecule lies within the hydrophobic region of the phospholipids. The amount of cholesterol in a particular plasma membrane is a major factor in determining the fluid nature of the membrane. Cholesterol limits the movement of phospholipids, providing stability to the plasma membrane.
Histology
The microscopic study of tissues
Preparation of Tissue
Step 1: Removal of tissue from the body via a biopsy or autopsy. A biopsy is taking a piece of tissue from the body where the person is still alive. For example, cutting a mole from the skin to check if it’s cancerous. An autopsy is taking a piece of tissue from the body where the person has passed away.
Step 2: Fixation of Tissue. The process of immersing the tissue into a mixture of chemicals to stop the metabolism or the chemical reactions that is occurring in this tissue. This fixation process preserves the cells and the extracellular components. The chemicals used for fixation are known as “fixatives”.”
Step 3: Embedding of the Tissue. The tissue must be embedded where the tissue is infiltrated with wax and allowed to set so it becomes hard. It’s this solidification of the tissue that allows us to cut it into thin sections.
Step 4: Slicing of the Tissue and Mounting tissue on a Slide. The slicing of the tissue is done on an instrument called the “microtome.” This instrument allows us to cut very thin slices of tissue so we can mount this tissue onto the slide and view it.
Step 5: Staining and Viewing using a Microscope. After the tissue is cut and placed onto the slide, the wax that had been infiltrated in the tissue is dissolved and the tissue is stained. Tissue is normally colourless, hence the reason why we stain the tissue.
Haematoxylin and Eosin: This chemical is usually abbreviated to H&E. This chemical is used to stain the tissue. This chemical is the most common chemical used in a histology lab. In the H&E stain, Nuclei is stained purple (from Haematoxylin) whereas other cell structures, including the cytoplasm, are stained pink (from Eosin)
4 tissue types
All organs in the body contain all four primary tissue types:
- Epithelial tissue - covers
- Connective tissue - support
- Muscle tissue - movement
- Nervous tissue – control
Epithelial tissue
Epithelial:
Characteristics of epithelial tissue:
- Covers and protects
Covering and lining epithelium
Glandular epithelium
- Distinct cell surfaces
Free surface- where cells are exposed and not attached to other cells.
Lateral surface- where cells are attached to other epithelial cells.
Basal surface (basement membrane or basal lamina)- attached to a basement membrane. It plays an important role in supporting and guiding cell migration during tissue repair. The basement membrane is typically porous, which allows substances to move to and from the epithelial tissue above it.
- Avascular but innervated- Blood vessels in the underlying connective tissue do not penetrate the basement membrane to reach the epithelium;
- Ability to regenerate- ability to replace damaged cells with new epithelial cells. Undifferentiated cells (stem cells) continuously divide and produce new cells
Avascular means that the Epithelia doesn’t have blood vessels running through it.
Innervated means that it does have nerve cells in it.
Avascular means that the Epithelia doesn’t have blood vessels running through it.
Innervated means that it does have nerve cells in it.
- Avascular means that the Epithelia doesn’t have blood vessels running through it. Innervated means that it does have nerve cells in it.
Simple squamous epithelium
Single layer of flattened cells with sparse cytoplasm
Functions:
- Diffusion, filtration and some secretion
Some locations:
- Alveoli of lungs, kidney glomeruli, serous membranes of pleura, pericardium and peritoneum
Simple cuboidal epithelium
Single layer of cubed-shaped cells.
- Some of these cells have microvilli or cilia
Functions:
- Absorption, secretion and movement
Some locations:
- Kidney tubules and terminal bronchioles
Simple columnar epithelium
Single layer of column-shaped or tall cells with round to oval nuclei.
- Some cells have cilia
Functions:
- Absorption, secretion and movement (similar to simple cuboidal!)
Locations:
- Intestines, stomach, fallopian tubes and lungs
Transitional epithelium
Resembles stratified squamous and stratified cuboidal cells depending on its state
Functions:
- Accommodate changes in fluid volume of the organs Locations: • Urinary bladder, ureter and upper part of urethra
Location:
- Lining of the urinary bladder, ureters, superior urethra
Stratified squamous epithelium
Basal cells are cuboidal or columnar and become progressively flatter (i.e. squamous) as you move to the surface. Several layers of cells
- Keratinized- primarily In the skin
- Non-keratinized - mouth, throat, larynx, esophagus, anus, vagina, inferior urethra, cornea
Functions:
- Protection against abrasion and loss of water
Locations:
- Keratinized: sole of feet, palm of hands, skin
- Non-keratinized: mouth, oesophagus, anus and vagina
Stratified cuboidal epithelium
Multiple layers of cubed-shaped cells. Rare tissue.
Functions:
- Absorption, secretion and protection
Locations:
- Ducts of sweat glands, ducts of salivary glands and developing ovum
