Comparisons Of Approaches Flashcards
Views on development
in terms of child development, the psychodynamic approach presents the most coherent theory of development, tying its concepts and processes to specific (psychosexual) stages that are determined by age. That said, Freud saw very little further development once a child enters the genital stage in
the teen years.
Stage theories within the cognitive approach have contributed to our understanding of child development. For example, as part of their intellectual development, children form increasingly complex concepts (schema) as they get older.
Maturation is an important principle within the biological approach whereby genetically determined changes in a child’s physiological status influence psychological and behavioral characteristics.
Humanistic psychologists see the development of the self as ongoing throughout life. However childhood is a particularly important period and a child’s relationship with their parents is important in terms of unconditional positive regard.
Finally, the behaviourist approach and social learning theory do not offer coherent stage theories of development but instead see the processes that underpin learning as continuous, occurring at any age.
Nature versus nurture
The debate about whether human behaviour is more influenced by inherited biological factors (nature) or by the environment and experience (nurture) has a long history in psychology. The biological approach and the two learning approaches are furthest apart in this respect. Behaviourists characterised babies as ‘blank slates at birth and suggest that all behaviour comes about through learned associations, reinforcement contingencies or, in the case of social learning theory, observation and imitation. In contrast, the biological approach argues from a position that behaviour is the result of a genetic blueprint that we inherit from our parents (genotype), though the way it is expressed is influenced by the environment (phenotype).
Freud thought that much of our behaviour was driven by biological drives and instincts, but he also saw relationships with parents as playing a fundamental role in future development. Similarly, humanistic psychologists regard parents, friends and wider society as having a critical impact on the person’s self-concept. Finally, although cognitive psychologists would recognise that many of our information processing abilities and schema are innate, they are constantly refined through experience.
Reductionism
Reductionism refers to the belief that human behaviour can be most effectively explained by breaking it down into constituent parts. The opposing view is holism, that phenomena are best understood by looking at the interplay and interaction of many different factors.
Behaviourism is reductionist in the sense that it breaks up complex behaviour into stimulus-response units for ease of testing in the lab. The biological approach is also reductionist in the way that it explains human behaviour and psychological states at the level of the gene or neuron. The psychodynamic approach reduces much of our behaviour to the influence of sexual drives and biological instincts, although Freud’s argument that personality is a dynamic interaction between the three parts of the personality is often viewed as a more holistic explanation. The cognitive approach has been accused of machine reductionism by presenting people as information processing systems and ignoring the influence of emotion on behaviour. Like behaviourists, social learning theorists reduce complex learning to a handful of key processes (imitation, modelling, etc.) though they do at least place emphasis on cognitive factors that mediate learning, and how these interact with external influences.
Finally, and quite distinct from other approaches, is humanistic psychology, which formulates a holistic approach to understanding human behaviour. This involves investigating all aspects of the individual, including the effects of interaction with others and wider society.
Determinism
Determinism is often confused with reductionism but is quite distinct from it - though many determinist explanations are also reductionist. Determinism proposes that all behaviour has an internal or external cause and is thus predictable.
The behaviourist approach sees all behaviour as environmentally determined by external influences that we are unable to control (e.g. operant conditioning). The biological approach advocates a form of genetic determinism in its assumption that much of our behaviour is directed by innate influences. Psychic determinism is a key feature of the psychodynamic approach insofar as the unconscious forces that drive our behaviour are the ultimate cause of behaviour, and that these are simply rationalised by our conscious minds.
The positions described above are known as hard determinism, the next two approaches take a less all-or-nothing view (soft determinism). The cognitive approach suggests that we are the ‘choosers’ of our own thoughts and behaviours, yet these choices can only operate within the limits of what we know and have experienced. Social learning theorists, like Bandura, put forward the notion of reciprocal determinism - the idea that as well as being influenced by our environment, we also exert some influence upon it through the behaviours we choose to perform. Only humanistic psychology stands alone in its assertion that human beings have free will and operate as active agents who determine their own development.
Explanation and treatment of psychological disorders
The behaviourist model sees abnormality as arising from maladaptive or faulty learning in the sense that inappropriate or destructive patterns of behaviour have been reinforced. Behaviour therapies, such as systematic desensitisation, which aim to condition new, more healthy responses, have been applied successfully to the treatment of phobias.
Social learning theory has had relatively little application to treatment, but the principles of modelling and observational learning have been used to explain how negative behaviours such as aggression may be learned through the influence of dysfunctional role models.
Freud saw anxiety disorders as emerging from unconscious conflict, childhood trauma and the overuse of defence mechanisms. Psychoanalysis has had some success as a therapy but it is not appropriate for everyone because it requires a considerable input from the patient in terms of time and also ability to talk about and reflect on emotions.
Cognitive therapy is much more effective and applicable, especially when combined with behaviour therapy as CBT (for example in the treatment of depression). It aims to identify and eradicate faulty thinking which is assumed to be the root cause of maladaptive behaviour.
Also effective is humanistic therapy (or counselling) based on Rogers’ philosophy that closing the gap between the self-concept and the ideal self will increase self-esteem and stimulate personal growth.
Finally, many would claim the biological approach has revolutionised the treatment of mental disorders through the development of drug therapy which regulates chemical imbalances in the brain.
