Comparative Politics Flashcards
List some notable early political philosophers
Confucius
Kautiliya (India)
Plato
Aristotle
Ibn-Khaldun
Who are the “original” political scientists?
The Ancient Greeks
Oligarchy
Government ruled by small group of people.
Ex: Sparta in Greece. Ruled by two kings from two different dynasties.
Aristocracy
Wealthy landowners control the government and state power.
Two-party system
Two political parties dominate the political landscape.
Ex: United States, Jamaica
Multi-party system
a political system where more than two meaningfully distinct political parties regularly run for office and win elections
Ex: Germany, Italy, India
One-party system
one-party state, a country where a single political party controls the government.
Ex: China, North Korea, Azerbaijan
How do political scientists classify and compare governments of different countries
By structure, function, and political culture
Structure
Actual setup of a political system.
Ex: US Government has three branches of government.
Political culture
shared set of beliefs that a group of people have about their political system
Ex: In the US, people believe in democracy and the rule of law. The belief in one person, one vote. The belief in the peaceful transfer of power.
Intuitivism
the philosophical view that certain kinds of knowledge, especially moral truths, can be known directly through intuition without needing empirical evidence or logical reasoning. Intuition, in this context, refers to a kind of immediate, self-evident awareness or “gut feeling” about the truth of something.
Ex: Humans know murder is wrong because of their intuition.
System of Logic. Main points?
Book written by John Stuart Mill.
Criticized intuitivism.
He was wary of the tyranny of the majority. When the majority imposes its views on human behavior on the broader masses, it leads to those opinions being accepted as fact.
To stand up against the tyranny of the majority, he supported the harm principle, which states a justifiable restriction of liberty can occur only to prevent the restriction or harming of others’ liberty.
Normative political science
This subset of political science concerns itself with studying how politics should work based on moral principles.
Ex: Is it the business of the government to run antipoverty programs?
Is democracy good?
Empirical political science
Opposite of normative political science; Aims to explain how politics works based on data and the scientific method.
Ex: What impact does campaign spending have on electoral outcomes?
What impact does a multiparty system have on political stability?
What is the structure of the Kazakh government?
Cadre party
a type of political party that is typically distinguished by a smaller, selective membership, often composed of politically active and educated individuals, rather than seeking broad mass participation.
Groups of leaders called cadres determine direction of party. Membership must maintain loyalty to cadre.
Ex: Nazi Party, Communist Parties
Mass party
Mass-based parties emphasize expanding their membership numbers and appealing to the masses.
Ex: Democratic Party
Labour Party
Green Party of Germany
Catch-all party
a term used in reference to a political party having members covering a broad spectrum of beliefs to maximize appeal to the masses
Niche party
A party focused on one issue.
Causes of political parties
To raise awareness of certain issues in public debate.
To lessen the burden of doing researching each and every person running for office is lessened as people organize around specific sets of ideals and form parties.
Structure of political party leadership
In some ways, a political party is organized as a pyramid structure similar to a large company with a national governing body surrounded by smaller chapters made up of the general party membership that mimic a company’s departments.
Party leader – This person may be referred to as the president or as a chairperson. The party leader’s duties include overseeing the executive committee.
Executive committee – This role includes the treasurer and secretary as well as other party executives.
General committee – A representative from each smaller chapter of the political party participates in decision-making at the national level.
Why was the Democratic Party formed?
To favor slavery and states’ rights
Why was the GOP formed?
Opposition to expansion of slavery to US territories.
Opposition to Kansas-Nebraska Act
How are Parliamentary elections conducted in Italy?
It is a mix of single member constituencies and proportional representation seats.
In Italy, what are the main coalitions of parties?
Center-Right Coalition (Forza Italia, Brothers of Italy, Lega Nord)
Center-Left Coalition (Democratic Party, Greens and Left Alliance)
Five Star Movement
Before the 90s, which parties dominated Italian politics? Why did they collapse
Socialist Party
Communist Party
Christian Democrats
They collapsed because of corruption.
National People’s Congress
China’s legislature. Appoints officials in Executive and Judicial Branch.
Amends and enforces Constitution
Passing laws
First-level Political subdivisions in China
Provinces, Special Administrative Regions (Hong Kong and Macau), Municipalities (Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin, Chongqing), Autonomous Regions like Xinjiang and Tibet
How is the CCP and the Chinese government hierarchal?
There are regional party committees for each political subdivision that are controlled by the national party. The national government heavily influences the regional governments.
How was the Qing Dynasty overthrown?
Cooperation of Nationalists and Communists to create a Republic under the leadership of Sun Yat-Sen.
First United Front
A political party created by the Nationalists and Communists to cooperate towards overthrowing the Qing Dynasty.
How did the Chinese Civil War begin?
Nationalists, now under Chiang Kai-shek, took control of the government and kicked Communists out from First United Front.
Why did the Chinese people turn against Kai-Shek?
He was focused on fighting the Communists instead of the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. The Communists resisted the Japanese.
Democratic centralism in CCP
The party operates through the system called democratic centralism. This means that when a decision has been voted on by the majority of the members of the party, the entire party stands by the decision. As the government of China is a single-party system, this means that the entire Chinese government supports the decisions of the Communist Party of China.
Executive Branch of China
President
State Council (including Premier)
Judicial Branch of China
Supreme People’s Court
President of China
It is a largely ceremonial role and attends to foreign dignitaries.
Premier of China
Accountable to National People’s Congress
Heads the State Council
State Council (China)
Oversees regional governments (first-level political subdivisions)
Supreme People’s Court (China)
The Supreme People’s Court oversees the courts of the regional governments.
How is National People’s Congress elected?
People elect Regional People’s Congresses, who in turn elect National People’s Congresses.
Tensions within Communist Party of China
To what extent should China embrace capitalism to adapt to the global economy?
One-party state
a political system in which only one party is legally allowed to operate, while it is illegal to operate other political parties
Meritocracy in Chinese government
The government is run by well‐educated and experienced officials who were carefully selected and promoted by merit.
Communist One-Party Rule System
Communist Parties are governed by Democratic centralism (its leaders are elected democratically, but otherwise, the party implements the leaders’ decisions and is organized hierarchically)
In practice, under the Communist one-party model, the party’s leader (called the first or general secretary) was the most powerful figure in the country, more powerful than the president or prime minister.
Fascist One-Party Political System
Does Not Embrace Democratic Centralism.
One charismatic leader embracing the people’s will made important decisions single-handedly, and the party implemented them.
De Facto One-Party States
In some countries, the constitution permits the existence of multiple political parties, but they are de facto one-party states because the government prevents the registration of opposition parties. Parties that are registered often support the government and the one party that dominates the government.
Ex: Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan
Dominant One-Party Systems. Types?
In a dominant party system, multiple political parties (including opposition parties) exist and operate legally, but only one party consistently wins elections.
Democratic Type: Elections are free and fair.
Ex: South Africa (until 2024), Japan
Authoritarian: A single party constantly wins elections due to electoral fraud or the creation of unfair conditions for opposition parties
Ex: Russia, Hungary
According to Aristotle, what is the purpose of government?
government exists to foster eudaimonia, or ‘a good life,’ of its citizens, which involves cultivating virtue amongst citizens.
What makes a good human, according to Aristotle? What were the implications?
The ability to reason.
Aristotle believed women and slaves had limited capability for reasoning. Therefore, he justified slavery and patriarchy.
According to Aristotle, what are three forms of good government and their corrupted forms?
Monarchy is rule by a single person, which is appropriate for a people when a single person’s virtue far outstrips everyone else’s. Its corrupted form is tyranny, in which one person dominates the whole city-state.
The second genuine government is aristocracy, which is rule by the few (assuming there is a class of people whose virtue exceeds the other citizens). Its corrupted form is plutocracy, which is not rule by the best (most virtuous) but instead rule by the rich.
The final form of genuine government is ‘polity,’ which is rule by the many. For a polity, citizens should be alike in virtue and they take office by turns. Its corrupted version is democracy, which is merely rule by the poor.
According to Aristotle, what is good vs corrupt government?
The mark of a genuine government is that reason and the rights of the ruled are respected by the ruler(s). Corrupted governments, by contrast, seek to dominate the ruled.
On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres
Book by Nicolaus Copernicus that proposed heliocentrism and challenged the geocentric beliefs of Europeans.
Francis Bacon
considered the father of the scientific method
Heliocentrism
Idea that Earth revolves around the sun.
Geocentrism
Idea that Earth is at center of universe.
Kepler and Galileo
Advanced ideas that planets did not spherically orbit the sun and that the sun is not the center of the universe.
Isaac Newton
Theory of gravity
Laws of motion
Effects of scientific revolution
Advances in and more widespread use of technology
Led to Industrial Revolution
Greater acceptance of scientific method and experimentation to attain knowledge for humanity
Scientific Method
- Make an observation.
- Ask a question.
- Research the question.
- Propose a hypothesis.
- Test the hypothesis with an experiment.
- Draw a conclusion based on the experiment.
- Repeat.
Influences on Scientific Revolution
The work of Indian and Persian mathematicians
Renaissance
Protestant Reformation
What movements did the Scientific Revolution lead to?
Enlightenment
Industrial Revolution
What religious philosophy arose out of the Scientific Revolution?
Deism
Skepticism
Be skeptical of an idea unless it is absolutely true.
How did people seek to make sense of the world after the Scientific Revolution?
People moved away from relying on superstition to pursuing logic, empiricism and skepticism to make sense of and be knowledgeable about the world.
How did the scientific method come to be developed?
It was developed over thousands of years by contributions from Ancient Greece and the Medieval Islamic and European worlds.
Muslim scholars championed experimentation as a source of scientific knowledge.
Which major historical figures played a role in developing the modern scientific method? How did they each play a role?
Aristotle (he championed empiricism as a source of knowledge)
Francis Bacon (Shaped modern scientific method that we know today. Argued for inductive reasoning and empiricism in science.)
Galileo Galilei (argued that the ultimate aim of science should be the pursuit of the truth, even if that truth goes against commonly held beliefs)
Isaac Newton (said scientists should be driven by observation and evidence rather than their desires to prove a specific conclusion)
Roger Bacon (emphasized importance of experimentation and recording experiments so that others can repeat them.)
Inductive reasoning
Coming to a conclusion based on a series of observations.
Ex: A scientist coming to a conclusion based on a scientific experiment and is results.
Rene Descartes’ thoughts on Scientific Method
He thought deductive reasoning and rationalism should be the source of knowledge instead of empiricism and inductive reasoning, which Francis Bacon proposed.
Deductive reasoning
A person begins under the assumption that the conclusion is already known and attempts to explain observations in a way that is consistent with that conclusion.
Ex: A climate change skeptic explaining rising temperatures in a way that is consistent with his or her thinking.
“I think. Therefore, I am.”
Rene Descartes argued that because humans have the ability to question their existence means that they exist. The existence of humans cannot be doubted. One person cannot doubt the existence of themself.
Major Enlightenment thinkers
Descartes
Rousseau
John Locke
De Montesquieu
Hobbes
Voltaire
Kant
Adam Smith
Development Theory
Explains why LDCs have not developed very much.
Western-Centric Modernization Theory
If LDCs want to develop, they need to accept Western social, political and economic practices, including free markets, acceptance of foreign investment in the country and democratic political institutions
Dependency Theory
It argues that the successful development of the developed countries was dependent upon the underdevelopment of the LDCs. In other words, the development of the developed countries of the Northern Hemisphere was based upon the exploitation of the lesser-developed countries of the South due to unequal trade practices, abuse of LDCs’ low-skilled labor market and extraction of profits from LDCs to the developed countries.
Hobbes vs Locke on human nature
Hobbes says human nature is bad while Locke says it is good.
Niccolo Machiavelli’s The Prince
Rulers must focus on self-preservation. They can do this by strengthening military, which will allow them to defend and conquer territory. They also must be deceptive and duplicitous in order to maintain their power.
Don’t be too kind to subjects, but don’t be too harsh either to the point that they hate you.
Human nature is bad. Therefore, rulers must do evil sometimes to succeed in politics and war.
Be virtuous only if advantageous
Modernization Theory
Modernization theory is defined as the sociological theory stating that societies will inevitably change in positive, progressive ways over the course of their existence.
Rostow’s Modernization Theory
Assumes Western capitalism is the true model of a society being modernized.
Says modernization occurs in the following stages.
Tradition: Society is agricultural or horticultural. Little trade with other societies. Population does not think scientifically about the world and technology.
Preparation for take-off: Manufacturing begins to develop. More trade with other societies.
Take-off: Industrialization occurs.
Maturation: Diversification of national economy. Technology is developed and spreads throughout society. The standard of living is increased.
Mass production and mass consumption: At the time of writing, Rostow believed that Western countries, most notably the United States, occupied this last “developed” stage. Here, a country’s economy flourishes in a capitalist system, characterized by mass production and consumerism.
Marxist Theory of Modernization
Commitment to Marxism modernizes society by abolishing private property, income inequality, and labor exploitation by bosses.
Capitalist Theory of Modernization
Similar to Rostow’s theory. Capitalism is key to modernization.
Social mobilization: Theory says
Western Theory of Modernization
Countries need to westernize and adopt capitalism in order to modernize and progress.
Modern Theory of Modernization
Countries modernize in different ways. Countries truly are modernized when they enter the global economic community and participate in international trade.
Criticism of Rostow’s Theory.
It is racist and ethnocentric.
Dependency Theory
Underdeveloped nations enrich advanced countries with resources at their own expense. As a result, the former become dependent on the latter.
During colonialism, advanced nations exploited the resources of their colonies.
During neocolonialism, advanced nations exploited less developed countries with the latter continuing dependence on the former.
Ex: China is currently flourishing as an advanced country that exploits underdeveloped countries. China takes up raw materials from other countries, especially the underdeveloped countries, refines their products, and sells them at very high prices. Also, they give loans to underdeveloped economies and expect huge interest back. This condition has made China flourish indefinitely, portraying the situation of dependency theory.
Propositions of Dependency Theory
Poor nations supply developed countries with raw materials and cheap labor in exchange for aid in the form of loans. This indebts poor countries.
Undeveloped and Developing Countries are Dependent on Advanced Countries.
Underdeveloped countries could use their resources to advance themselves. However, these resources are sold to advanced countries, refined, and then resold to underdeveloped countries at high prices. This process causes underdeveloped nations to deplete their resources which would have otherwise assisted them in their growth.
Developed countries will continue to take resources from underdeveloped nations as long as they benefit from them.
What does World Systems Theory say about shifting power?
Who will be a core, semi-peripheral, or peripheral country in the future shifts over time.
External Area
According to World Systems Theory, these countries are largely self-sufficient and are not exploited or do not exploit other countries for resources like labor and raw materials.
Globalization Critique of World Systems Theory
World systems theory doesn’t account for globalization in explaining economic relationships between countries.
Positivist Critique of World Systems Theory
It is too simplistic to sort countries into four categories.
Marxist Critique of World Systems Theory
World systems theory emphasizes economics over social class: core countries also have exploited classes of people that benefit very little from the economic power of their societies. World systems Theory fails to account for this.
State autonomist critique of World Systems Theory
This criticism argues that Wallerstein treats states and their interests too much like businesses. These critics argue that states are not corporations and that their place on the world stage is more complex than Wallerstein accounts for.
Culturalist critique of World Systems Theory
The theory is insufficient in addressing the importance of culture in the shifting powers of the world.
Colonial critique of World Systems Theory
World systems theory does not view countries in the global south as whole entities in their own right.
Social Power Theories: Pluralist, Power-Elite & Marxist Models
See Chapter 11 Sociology Cards in Quizlet
Review cards about the Prince in International Relations Brainscape Batch
State
A state is a geographical area that shares a common government. It is defined by its borders and by the laws that govern the people living within them.
Nation
A nation, on the other hand, is a group of people who share ethnicity, cultural identity, history, and often geographical location.
Nation-state
A nation state is a geographical region that has borders and is governed by a single independent government. It is populated primarily or entirely by people who consider themselves to be a nation.
Ex: The U.S., for example, is a nation state because it is governed by a single independent government and because the people who inhabit it by and large consider themselves to be legally and culturally American.
Israel is a nation-state for the Jewish nation.
Armenia is for Armenians.
Australia is for Australians.
Declarative Theory of Statehood
The declarative theory of statehood holds that a geographical or political region is a state if it has:
A defined geographical territory.
A permanent population.
A government.
The ability to enter into relations with other states.
Constitutive Theory of Statehood
Under the constitutive theory, declarations of recognition by other states are decisive for the legal existence of a region as a state.
Ex: China does not recognize Taiwan as a state.
What forces facilitated the creation of states in the Early Modern Period?
Technology allowed people to trade and travel over long distances.
Map technologies improved understanding of borders
Printing press and greater literacy created more uniform and distinct cultural identities across various peoples
Characteristics of Nation-States
A culture for al its citizens
A central government
Have economies and conduct economic relations with other nation-states.
Examples of states that are not nation-states
Ottoman Empire (Many different ethnicities with their own unique cultural identities. They did not collectively identify as a nation.)
Criticisms of Nation-States
Immigration can change the national identity of nation-states.
Members of nation-states may express racism and xenophobia to people no part of their nation.
Legitimacy
People recognize the government’s right to rule.
Ex: Americans recognizing the right of the federal government to govern.
Stability
Preservation of an intact and smoothly functioning government in a state.
Examples of instability include civil war, revolutions that threaten to topple governments, and short-term coalition governments like in the case of Italy etc..
History of Legitimacy and Stability in Government
In the past, governments ensured legitimacy and stability by force. They even appealed to religious authority, especially monarchs.
Later on, they do so by providing services like rule of law, national defense, education, and a social safety net.
How do fascist and communist states maintain legitimacy?
By directing anger of people toward a common enemy, like the rich, minorities, or other countries.
How do democratic states maintain legitimacy?
By emphasizing rule by the people.
Sovereignty
the authority of a country to govern itself without outside interference
Do states have absolute sovereignty?
No, their behavior can be affected by other states such as through sanctions and military interventions.
Failed State
a state that is unable to maintain and project its authority over its population and cannot protect its international boundaries.
Ex: In your case, some new immigrants to your island paradise decided they didn’t have to listen to you. Civil unrest and violence ensued as immigrants fought over their own pieces of paradise and you had no ability to stop it. Moreover, a neighboring state decided that your island would make a great addition to its tourist industry and invaded your country. While the international community made some noise of protest, your little island just wasn’t important enough to support more aggressive action since you had no control over your population and no ability to defend your island.
Nationalism
Loyalty and devotion to a nation
Ex: Bosnian Serbs devoted to the Serb people, Bosnian Croats devoted to the Croat people.
Patriotism
Devotion to one’s own country
Ex: All Bosnians, whether Croats, Serbs, or Bosniaks, are devoted to the country above their own national identities. So, maybe a Bosnian Serb identifies with their country of residence first before being devoted to their own nation, the Serbs.
Nationalism during France
Nationalism first began in France as the French Revolution took on nationalistic undertones.
Nationalism during Napoleonic Wars
Nationalism developed in other parts of Europe as peoples were getting ready to resist Napoleon’s conquests.
At the Congress of Vienna after Napoleon’s defeat, new nation-states were created to check French military power.
Nationalism in 20th century
Nationalist sentiments in Balkans caused WWI. (Serb Nationalist Gavrilo Princip assassinated Franz Ferdinand)
Fascism and Nazism
Blackshirts
The Blackshirts were a group of armed squads turned national militia who were loyal to Mussolini and ensured that people supported traditional Italian culture while opposing communism.
Describe Europe before the emergence of nation-states
Feudalism. Monarchs gave land (fiefs) to lords in exchange for tribute. Serfs worked the land.
Loyalties of people were to monarchs, lords or their individual communities rather than a nation.
Dreams of Unity in Europe
Holy Roman Emperor and Pope wanted to unite all of Europe under one state that would spread Catholicism.
With the Protestant Reformation, the Thirty Years’ War, and the Peace of Westphalia, this dream was shattered.
Describe how nation-states arose after Thirty Years’ War
As trade grew, a merchant class disloyal to feudal lords emerged and looked to monarchs for protection.
Monarchs created national bureaucracies, made laws that applied on a national level, consolidated military powers, and took a greater role in taxation and the economy. They usurped powers from lords.
This led to more people identifying with a specific nation rather than being loyal to a particular lord or the local community they lived in.
Johann Gottlieb Fichte
A major advocate for a German nation-state
Developments in the Unification of Germany
Creation of German Confederation (Alliance of German-Speaking Countries)
Dano-Prussian War of 1864 (Prussia defeats Denmark to take Schleswig and Holstein)
In January of 1871, leaders of most German-speaking states agree to make Kaiser Wilhelm I King of future German Empire.
Franco-Prussian War unified Germany. War was concluded with Treaty of Versailles of 1871.
In May 1871, Treaty of Frankfurt formally creates German Empire.
Obstacles to German Unification under Bismarck
Religious differences between Lutherans in the North and Catholics in the South of Germany. (Bismarck’s Prussia was Lutheran.)
Many rulers of German-speaking states did not want to relinquish their authority.
How did Franco-Prussian War begin?
French objections to a Prussian prince taking over the throne in Spain. Though this never happened, Bismarck manipulated the situation by releasing the Ems Telegram to the press. This telegram was a communication between the king of Prussia and Bismarck discussing supposed demands made by the French. The telegram, which was mistranslated into French, was so insulting to the French government and people that they declared war against Prussia.
Otto von Bismarck
Leader of Prussia who was responsible for the unification of Germany via conquest. After unification, he led Germany until 1890.
Definition of a “Modern State” According to Max Weber. What Are the Elements of a “Modern State”?
a state in which power and authority are centralized and exercised by an independent administration organization over a clearly defined territory
Monopoly on the use of force. Only the state can use force to achieve aims and objectives such as enforcing laws, protecting territorial integrity, and preventing crime.
A modern state’s borders are claimed by the state and recognized by other states.
A modern state’s government receives legitimacy from a constitution and the democratic participation of its citizens.
How did Max Weber want states to be run?
Through bureaucracies
Titular Sovereignty
Political leaders who only have ceremonial Authority.
Ex: King of UK or the Governor-General of Canada. The President of India is a ceremonial position.
Internal Sovereignty
a government capable of demanding obedience from all persons and parties within it
External Sovereignty
A state is free from interference from other states in its internal and foreign affairs. It is able to set its own policies independent of other states.
Unitary System
National Government holds power. It can delegate power to regional governments, but can also take them away and change their borders at any time.
Ex: UK
Federalism
The power and sovereignty are constitutionally divided between the national (federal) government and regional governments.
Ex: US
Advantages and disadvantages of unitary system
Advantages: Uniformity in laws and legislation across the country, Quick Responses to Emergency Situations like Natural Disasters and Pandemics, Clarity of Responsibility for Who is Responsible for Policy Failures (Specifically, if something goes wrong, people can blame the national government)
Disadvantages: Citizens’ needs, values, and identities may differ across the country, but accommodating such diversity is more difficult if only the national government makes important decisions.
Advantages and disadvantages of federalism
Advantages: Unlike unitary state, federalism can accommodate diversity in citizens’ needs, values, and identities. Ex: In US, differing laws on gun control. In Ethiopia, there are different regional government based on ethnicity.
Individual states can experiment with policies. If the policy is successful, it can become a national model and be spread nationwide.
Disadvantages: Because federations allow regional governments the power to tax and spend, wealthier ones can afford better public services to their residents. Ultimately, citizens are treated differently by the government (for example, experience different environmental standards based on the state they live in.) depending on where they live. Moreover, because both territorial units and the national government share power, coordination problems are more likely to arise during an emergency.
Confederal System of Government
A confederation is a union of regional governments which cede some limited powers to the national government. The national government is usually limited to foreign relations, defense, internal trade, and common currency. The members usually retain the right to leave the confederation at any time. Confederations do not generally have directly elected legislatures or executive officials. Ordinarily, a confederation usually has a legislative body in which each member has equal representation, regardless of its population size. Decisions are made and legislation adopted by consensus. It means that each member has a power to veto a decision.
Legal vs political sovereignty
Legal: The government has authority under law to make and enforce laws.
The people in the country have political sovereignty and via expression of opinion influence the government’s decisions.
First democracy in the world
The first democracy in Athens, Greece, was a direct democracy where the citizens voted on laws. Only men could vote.
Political reality in Nigeria right after Independence
Country was divided regionally, but elected first President Nnamdi Azikiwe.
First Nigerian Junta (1966-1979)
Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi became military dictator via a coup. He was assassinated in 1966 and overthrown.
The new leader ruled for 10 years until he was overthrown.
The leader of THAT coup was killed and Olusegun Obasanjo took over and sought to transition Nigeria to a Republic.
Shehu Shagari was elected President in the brief new Republic
Second Nigerian Junta (1983-1988)
Muhammadu Buhari overthrew Shagari and ruled.
Buhari was overthrown. Then, that regime was overthrown. The general who ruled in the latter regime died of heart failure in 1998.
General Abdulsalami Abubakar took over and began the process of transitioning to democracy again.
Nigerian Republic (1999-present)
Olusegun Obasanjo
Umaru Yar’Adua
Goodluck Jonathan
Muhammadu Buhari
Bola Tinubu
Issues in Nigeria since 1999
Ensuring fair elections (although democracy is largely functional in Nigeria)
Inequality
Economic stagnation
Poverty
Corruption
De Jure vs De Facto Sovereignty
De Jure Sovereignty refers to who has the legal right to rule while De Facto Sovereignty refers to who actually is ruling.
Ex: In Niger, the President and the government was overthrown. He had De Jure Sovereignty. Military leaders had De Facto Sovereignty. However, if the people accept the coup, the leaders become the De Jure Sovereign.
Popular Sovereignty
Popular sovereignty is government based on consent of the people. The government’s source of authority is the people, and its power is not legitimate if it disregards the will of the people.
Origins of word, sovereignty
Latin word “Superanus”, which means supreme.
The Latin term is further reflected in the French souveraineté, which means much the same.
Medieval theory of sovereignty
In medieval political theory, the king has two bodies: a “body natural” (their physical, mortal body) and a “body politic” (a mystical, immortal body representing the king’s political authority), which allowed for the continuity of power even after the king’s death. Once the king dies, the king’s body natural stops functioning, but the body politic is transferred to the king’s successor.
Congressional vs Parliamentary Democracy
Congressional: The Executive Branch, usually a President, is elected separately by the people. Legislators are elected in separate elections.
Ex: In the US, people vote for the President and their Congressional Legislators Separately.
Parliament: People vote for their legislators called Members of Parliament. In turn, Members of Parliament select a Prime Minister.
Ex: In the UK, people vote for their local MP. Then, the MPs in Westminster select a Prime Minister. Usually, the leader of the party with the most MPs becomes the PM.
Important Characteristics of Democracy
Free and Fair Elections
Respect of Civil Liberties
Universal Suffrage
Active Participation of Population in Elections
Rule of Law
Modern Oligarchy
Today, often, political power is concentrated in the hands of a small group of very wealthy people. Even if they are not part of the government, they exhibit strong influence on the government. Their children inherit their wealth and power.
Best examples of modern-day oligarchies are Russia and Ukraine.
Theocracy
Religious leaders (or people who are connected to influential members of the clergy) under the guidance of religious beliefs and laws control the government.
Ex: Iran, Vatican (The Pope governs the state.)
Dictatorship
It is led by a single person (a dictator) who possesses absolute power without any limits.
Ex: Adolf Hitler, Isaias Afwerki, Vladimir Putin, Francisco Franco, Juan Peron
Technocracy
Government officials are selected based on expertise.
Ex: In Europe, caretaker governments often consist of cabinets where each minister is an expert in their own field. These are not career politicians.
https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2011/11/16/so-what-exactly-is-a-technocrat-anyway
Federalism in the EU
To some degree, EU states sacrifice their power to Brussels as a central authority.
However, this is not a federalist arrangement. Brussels is not very powerful compared to national governments in other federalist systems like US and Canada.
EU states have far more power over their own laws compared to US states.
The EU is also very weak in ensuring compliance with EU-level legislation.
Autocracy
It is the concentration of public power in the hands of one person or group, e.g., a small political party
Ex: Eritrea, China, Russia
How do autocratic governments function?
Apathy about politics from the public
Support from elites
Leader issues commands and mandates when governing. There is no rule of law.
Authoritarianism
Essentially, any government that is not democratic except totalitarian ones.
Totalitarianism
Totalitarianism is against democracy. It seeks control over all aspects of citizens’ lives. It seeks to indoctrinate citizens with a guiding ideology. (Ex: Racial purity ideology of Nazis) Such regimes also use the secret police to keep citizens in line and crush political dissent.
Ex: Nazis, Stalin Russia
Theodemocracy
Theodemocracy is a theocratic political system proposed by Joseph Smith, the founder of the Latter Day Saint movement. According to Smith, a theodemocracy is a fusion of traditional republican democratic principles under the US Constitution with theocratic rule.
Principles used to justify and legitimize theocracy
Justifying principles include sacred kingship, a paradigm of royalty which states that the ruler of a kingdom is seen as a deity in their own right, or as an agent of a deity, and divine sanction, the concept that the only authority to which people are accountable is the authority of a god. For the latter principle, if people disobey the government, they may be disobeying God. So, theocracies use this to attain obedience from the public.
Pros of Unicameralism
One-house legislatures allow representatives to be more closely connected to their constituents and better represent their interests.
They foster more cooperation among members.
They simplify the law-making process and allow bills to be passed more quickly and efficiently.
Unlike in a bicameral legislature, where a conference committee is needed to iron out differences in bills, it isn’t necessary in a unicameral legislature.
There is more accountability with the members of a unicameral legislature.
Cons of Unicameralism
There are fewer government access points for citizens to be heard by their government.
There is less of a chance for people to be represented by their government with fewer representatives.
With one house legislature, there are fewer inner-branch checks on legislative branch, meaning that there is a potential of abuse of power.
Because bills are passed more quickly, there is a bigger chance of flawed legislation being passed.
Purposes of bicameralism
To ensure legislation reflects a variety of viewpoints
To serve as a check on power unlike in the case of unicameralism where one house isn’t impeded by another house of the legislature.
History of Bicameralism
In 13th century, the Magna Carta created the House of Lords. Later, the House of Commons was formed.
During the medieval period, legislatures expanded such as a tricameral system in France until 15th century when concept of divine right of kings emerged.
In 17th century Colonial America, bicameral legislatures were established in colonies.
How was the Weimar Republic formed?
Previous German-annexed regions were given away to bordering countries.
WWI victors decided to create a democracy in Germany in the aftermath of the Treaty of Versailles.
Major figures of Weimar Republic
Frederich Ebert, president from 1919-1925
Paul von Hindenburg, president from 1925-1934 and a prominent general
Philipp Scheidemann, chancellor of Germany in 1919, resigned in protest of the Treaty of Versailles
Dawes Plan
The most significant action the Weimar government pursued was creating the Dawes Plan. Germany began to experience a period of hyperinflation after the government decided to print large amounts of money to pay back the war reparations. This caused the German currency to become worthless. The Dawes Plan slowed the reparation payments and gave the country the economic space needed to begin to grow again.
How did Hitler rise to power?
Before the Great Depression, the US lent money to Germany to pay reparations to France and the UK. The UK and France paid the US, continuing the cycle. The Depression broke the cycle.
As the cycle broke, France and the UK demand payments of reparations from Germany. Unemployment also rose in Germany. Bad economic conditions led to Hitler’s rise.
Weaknesses and Strengths of Weimar Republic
Weaknesses: Nationalists in government who opposed Treaty of Versailles, Weak Economy due to Reparations, Lack of faith of German public in democracy.
Strengths: Freedoms for citizens, Government ran effectively, Dawes Plan
Powers of French President
Can dissolve Parliament, but cannot veto legislation.
If president’s party wins majority of seats in National Assembly, President appoints Prime Minister
Cohabitation (France)
President and PM are of different parties. This occurs when the President’s Party is in the minority in the National Assembly. Prime Minister makes major policy decisions while President focuses on foreign policy.
According to France’s Constitution, which legislative body appoints the PM?
The National Assembly.
How are French Senators elected?
By regional and local legislatures
How are members of the National Assembly in France elected?
In France’s “two-round plurality” system, candidates win in a National Assembly election if they obtain at least 50% of the vote. If no candidate gets 50%, a second round is held in which all candidates who obtained at least 15% of the vote can participate.
History of Democracy in France
French Revolution led to a liberal government and overthrow of the monarchy.
Jacobins then took over and enacted a reign of repression and terror.
Napoleon took over and declared himself emperor. He ruled until defeat in Russia in 1814.
After Napoleon’s fall, France experienced political instability: France’s governmental system changed several times between 1814 and 1871, from monarchy, to presidential democracy, to an empire.
Only after a Revolution in 1871 did France become a permanent democratic republic.
After WWII, French governments were often unstable and were toppled under no-confidence votes. In 1958, Charles De Gaulle formed a government and strengthened the power of the executive branch, forming the “Fifth Republic”.
Features of bicameral legislatures
Bicameral legislatures often include upper and lower chambers, with the former being regarded as more elite. Members of this chamber often hold their positions for longer terms than those in the lower chamber, which tend to be directly elected by constituents.
How does Congress pass bills?
The House and Senate work on drafting the legislation sent to the President for approval. A policy idea known as a bill can be introduced into either chamber to begin law-making. Next, the bill moves through the chamber’s standing committee system. In committee, the bill is researched, revised, and rewritten. The bill is then sent to the full chamber for a vote. Because the U.S. has a bicameral legislature, it must then go through the same process in the other chamber when a bill passes one chamber. The committees in each chamber bring various perspectives to the legislation based on the interests of committee members, political party agendas, and the influence of lobbyists. This means that the bill exists in two different forms at this point in the process.
To reconcile the bill into a unified piece of legislation, it must be sent to a conference committee, including members from both chambers. Once the two bills are revised into one compromise bill, it is sent to both chambers for a vote. If passed by both chambers, it is sent to the President for final action.
The President can sign the bill into law or veto it, and it is returned to both chambers for a possible veto override.
Proportional Representation
an electoral system in which the share of seats a party obtains is proportional to its vote share
Majoritarian system of government
Legislature is divided into districts. The candidate that receives the highest share of votes becomes the elected representative for that district.
Plurality System
Majoritarian system in which candidate who wins most votes wins.
Ex: UK parliamentary elections
Majority system
In a majority system, a candidate needs 50% of the vote to get elected. If no candidate wins 50% of the vote, a runoff election is held between two top candidates. This system is used in the US states of Georgia and Louisiana.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Proportional Representation
Advantages: Multi-party system, better representation of demographic minorities, higher electoral turnout, Gerrymandering is more difficult
Disadvantages: Extremist parties can be represented in legislature, more unstable governments because of the need to build stable coalitions, difficult to decide who to vote for because there are multiple parties to choose from, weak connection of legislators to citizens (Ex: In US, Representatives represent individual districts and cater to their constituents in those districts. That’s harder in PR systems.)
List PR
The most popular type of proportional electoral system is list PR. Under this system, each party submits a list of candidates corresponding to the number of representatives elected from the list. Let’s consider a district electing 10 representatives. To run in such a district, each party would have to submit a list of 10 candidates. Let’s then imagine that Democrats obtained 52% of the vote in this district, Republicans 30%, and Libertarians 9%. In this case Democrats would elect five top candidates from their list, Republicans three, and Libertarians one, etc. The precise method of transferring vote share into the number of seats depends on a mathematical formula used.
Closed List vs Open List PR
Closed: Voters vote for a party. Whoever gets elected is determined by an ordered list of names created by the party. The higher up on the list, the greater priority one will be given, depending on how well the party does in the elections.
Open: Voters vote for party and preferred candidates on the list of that party.
Single Transferrable Vote system
a multi-winner electoral system in which each voter casts a single vote in the form of a ranked ballot
STV uses multi-member election districts, usually electing between three and six members. Depending on their popularity, parties submit between one and three candidates in each district. On the ballot, voters mark their preferences from the first to the last, depending on the number of candidates on the ballot.
List PR vs Single Transferable Vote PR pros and cons
List PR: Counting votes is simpler, Easier to understand for voters, prevents gerrymandering, very little influence over candidates they want to elect
STV PR: Better reflects voters’ preferences, enables greater accountability of legislators to constituents, Complicated voting process, Allows for gerrymandering
Corruption in Nigeria’s government
Oil oligarchs often have very heavy influence on Nigerian politics.
Religion in Nigerian politics
Religion can be a fissure point between Christian voters in the South and Muslims in the North.
Apportionment problem in politics
The problem of fairly dividing the seats in the national legislature among states, provinces, or other political subdivisions in a country based on size and population of each subdivision.
Ex: Apportioning congressional seats to each state.
How are congressional seats apportioned?
Take the national population and divide by 435. This number is around how many people a congressional seat should have.
Divide each state’s population by the above calculation. After rounding, you attain each state’s apportioned number of seats.
Compare and contrast congressional and parliamentary democracy.
Parliamentary Democracy: Political parties choose candidates and then, the public votes.
PM and Cabinet are members of Parliament.
The process of passing a bill is shorter.
Congressional Democracy: Voters elect candidates.
President and Cabinet are not members of Congress.
A bill takes a longer time to be law: Bill is proposed, it goes through committee, it gets voted on in committee and then in the house as a whole, and after passing both chambers, the bill goes to the President for signature or veto.
Duties of British Parliament
Pass laws
Oversight of functioning of government
Debate political issues
Monitor and appropriate government spending
How was the British Parliament created?
The English Parliament was created by the Magna Carta in 1215.
In 1707, the Treaty of Union unified Scotland, Wales, Ireland, and England into one state. After that, the English Parliament became the British Parliament.
British House of Commons Requirements for membership and Duties
Membership criteria: Be at least 18, a commoner (not a lord), a British citizen
Duties: Pass laws, Appropriation of money, Oversight of the functioning of the executive branch
British House of Lords Requirements for membership and Duties
Membership criteria: Appointment by the monarch, Some lords are hereditary peers who can pass down their membership to children (They are the vast minority of members of House of Lords)
Duties: Can suggest revisions to laws, but it cannot block the will of the House of Commons, Conducts oversight of functioning of executive branch
In the past, who were members of the House of Lords?
In the past, there were two groups of people who were allowed to sit in the House of Lords. One was hereditary peers. A hereditary peer is a baron, viscount, earl, marquess, or duke. The most senior-ranking bishops of the Church of England could also serve.
Head of State definition and duties
Largely ceremonial executive role in a state
Signs bills into law
Commands the armed forces
Participates in Ceremonial Functions
Meets with foreign leaders and dignitaries
Makes appointments of individuals to key government offices
Head of Government definition and duties
Unlike head of state, it actually leads the government
Forms a cabinet
Responsible for passage of legislation in legislature
Conducts foreign policy
Advises Head of State on appointments to key government offices
President of Council of Ministers of Spain. Definition. How was it created? Duties?
PM of Spain. Post was created in 1978 Constitution after fall of Franco dictatorship.
Commands armed forces.
Signs legislation.
Conducts foreign policy and meets foreign leaders.
Runs government.
How does one become PM of Spain?
Though the king may technically nominate whichever leader he pleases, he has always nominated the leader whose party wins either a majority or plurality of the seats in the Spanish Cortes’ lower house, the Congress. After the king’s official nomination, the president still must give a long speech to Congress detailing his plans for governing. Afterward, the Congress votes on whether to place their confidence in the president; the president must win a majority of the votes to be placed in office.
Council of Ministers of Spain
Ministers in Cabinet of Spain. Cabinet meets once a week to coordinate government policy across ministries and to advise PM on policy.
President of Germany Definition and duties. How is the position appointed?
Head of State of Germany
Largely ceremonial role.
No veto power, but ceremonially signs legislation.
Ensures decisions of the government conforms with German Constitution.
Meets with other states’ Heads of State.
Can serve two 5-year terms. Elected by Bundestag and members of Germany’s state governments.
Chancellor of Germany Definition and duties.
Head of government
Forms Cabinet (per negotiations with coalition partners)
Sets government policy
Represents Germany at functions attended by other heads of state
Vote of no confidence
Vote against the ruling government in legislature. Happens in parliamentary systems. If such a vote passes, new elections are held.
Executive Office of the President
The EOP is an important part of the executive branch and is filled with many advisors, experts, and civil servants who assist the president in governing the state. The National Security Council, the Homeland Security Council, the Office of Budget and Management, and the White House Office are key parts of the EOP.
How is the PM of Italy selected?
The President appoints the PM. The PM is usually the leader of the majority party. The PM forms a government and presents it to the President for approval. Both Houses of Parliament must give a vote of confidence to the new government.
Duties of Council of Ministers of Italy
Cabinet of Italy
The Council also determines goals, policies, regulations, and programs that help the various parts of the nation’s political and administrative systems work smoothly and efficiently. Further, it can make decrees that carry the force of law when allowed by Parliament or when unforeseen circumstances require immediate action.
How does Parliament oversee the Executive Branch in Italy?
The Parliament keeps close tabs on the Council, regularly scrutinizing its actions, asking questions of the prime minister and council members, and issuing motions, recommendations, and resolutions to guide the Council’s decisions and actions. Plus, of course, Parliament can always give its vote of no-confidence to the government.
British PM’s relationship with Parliament
PM must be elected MP.
PM is usually present during Parliamentary sessions.
Answers PMQs.
British Judiciary
Does not have power to strike down unconstitutional laws passed by Parliament.
Judges are appointed by independent commissions.
Has the power to rule government regulations and decisions unlawful if the law or Constitution does not allow it. (Ex: For example, in September 2019 the British Supreme Court ruled that the prime minister’s decision to suspend the parliament (when the latter was unable to agree on Brexit terms) was unconstitutional and unlawful. Hence, PM Boris Johnson had to reconvene it.)
Duties that the British PM does that Siddharth doesn’t know
Appoints government officials
Sits on Cabinet Committees
Serves as liaison between Cabinet and Monarch.
He or she also recommends candidates for the monarch to appoint to the House of Lords, the judicial bench, and the clergy of the Church of England.
UK Cabinet Duties
Cabinet creates government policy.
It meets with the prime minister weekly to discuss major issues and make decisions about how the government should respond to them. Members then take their decisions to the House of Commons for further debate and support as necessary.
Its members form committees to more closely examine certain issues and suggest legislation.
Collective Responsibility
when the Cabinet makes a decision about an issue or a policy, all the members must support and defend that decision or policy before Parliament. In doing so, the Cabinet presents a united front. If a Cabinet member decides that he or she cannot or will not support or defend a decision or policy, he or she would have to resign from the Cabinet
Electoral College
a body whose task is to elect a candidate to a particular office such as the President.
Ranked Choice voting
Voters rank candidates from first to last choice.
Multi-winner voting system
People vote for multiple candidates for a specific office.
Ex: Mount Olive Town Council or BOE elections
Types of voting systems for multiwinner elections
Single voting: Each voter selects one candidate
Block voting: Voters to choose as many candidates as available seats for a particular office. Ex: Mt. Olive BOE elections
Cumulative voting: It’s like block voting, but you can vote for a particular candidate multiple times. For example, voters get seven votes to fill seven seats for a particular office, but one person wants to make sure a particular candidate is on the committee so they select that candidate seven times.
Partisan Era (Congress)
1830s to early 1900s
Lots of corruption in US politics
State legislators took bribes to vote for specific candidates for Senator before the 17th Amendment passed.
Democrats and GOP traded power back and forth.
During the Civil War, strong parties emerged and there was lower turnover in seats.
Committee Era (Congress)
The committee era of Congress lasted approximately from the early 1900s through the 1960s.
Lame duck reforms were made to ensure that congressmen who lost re-election bids who neither had the time nor the mandate to deal with national crises were replaced quicker. One such reform was the Twentieth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. This amendment changed the date in which Congress and the President took office after an election was held. This enabled the new office holder to take fresh action quicker rather than having to wait to deal with a potential crisis.
For the first half of this era, the Republicans mainly dominated the Congress. During the second half, the Democrats retained most of the power over Congress.
There was a high level of patriotism and hard work during this era, and the seniority system emerged.
Contemporary Era (Congress)
1970s to present
Lots of partisanship among members of Congress
The press and social media have raised citizens’ awareness of the negative and political positions of congresspeople, which has contributed to the low public opinion of these politicians.
During this era, more powers were given to the Speaker and sunshine reforms emerged, such as open hearings and more publicly-recorded votes.
The Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971 established the Federal Election Commission, which imposed restrictions on monetary contributions by individuals, parties, and political action committees to candidates running for Congress.
Formative Era (Congress)
The formative era of Congress lasted from approximately the 1780s to the 1820s.
Second Constitutional Congress
Articles of Confederation
Constitutional Convention
During most of this time, the Democratic-Republicans dominated the Congress over the Federalists and had more power. There was high turnover in seats and very little leadership and direction. The committee system emerged and standing committees were created.
In the UK, how are the leaders of the Labour and Conservative Parties elected?
Labour: Vote by members and trade unions
Conservative: Vote by members
Single-member plurality system
Also called “First past the post”; Legislature is divided into single-member districts. Candidates run in each district. Candidate who wins a plurality of votes wins right to represent that respective district.
Ex: Most US House of Reps Elections
Pros and cons of single-member and multi-member districts with proportional representation
Multi-member districts do a better job of reflecting a wide swath of political views since multiple legislators get elected on the basis of proportional representation.
More accountability for elected representatives in Single-member district system since one person gets elected.
More diversity of citizens in MMDs than SMDs.
SMDs tend to favor two-party systems while MMDs favor multi-party systems.
SMDs face the unique problem of gerrymandering compared to MMDs.
Customs
widely accepted expectations of behavior that are particular to a specific place, time, or society
Ex: Shooting fireworks on 4th of July, taking off shoes before going into person’s house in Japan
Differences between laws and customs
laws are purposively established, whereas customs tend to grow naturally over time within a society
law needs a special agency for enforcement and often involves formal punishment for non-compliance; custom does not
Laws are written down and recorded while customs are not. You learn customs by virtue of living and growing up in a society. You merely observe others and their actions to learn the customs of a society.
Customs can also fade and disappear without formal removal or recognition by a society. Laws, however, only disappear when formally abolished by a recognized authority such as through a legislative act.
Laws tend to be put in place to deal with matters important to society’s well-being and functioning. Ex: Environmental laws, Traffic laws
Presidential System definition and features.
The presidential system is a democratic form of government in which a singular head of government/state, generally though not always known as a president, presides over an executive branch that is distinct from a legislature and judiciary.
No early elections. Elections happen on a fixed schedule aside from special elections.
Separation of Powers between branches of government
President can only be removed from office via an impeachment process.
Roles of US President
Head of State
Chief Diplomat of the US (Face of US Foreign Policy)
Chief Executive (Responsible for running executive branch and enforcing laws passed by Congress)
Chief Policymaker (Seeks to set up and pass their own legislative agenda)
Chief of Party (They head their own political party and set the party’s election programme and strategy)
Chief Guardian of the Economy (Ensure that the economy runs well)
Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces
Pros and cons of Presidential System
Pros: Citizens can directly choose the President
Strong separation of powers (President cannot dissolve legislature)
Government is more stable than in parliamentary systems.
Cons: Hard to remove a President via impeachment
Gridlock between President and Congress if opposing parties control each.
Common Law vs Civil Law Systems
In the former, judges, even when a statute is in question, rely on stare decisis to issue rulings. In the latter, judges rely on a comprehensive system of laws that instructs them how to rule in a particular situation. Stare decisis is not really a thing in civil law systems. Judges in civil law system have very little room to interpret the law. They merely go by the book and follow the letter of the law to issue rulings.
Ex: So in our bank robbery example, if you robbed a bank in an area whose legal system was organized under a civil law system, the judge would look to the exact laws that were written down regarding what types of procedures need to be followed to handle the crime of robbing a bank and also to the laws that dictate what type of punishment should be meted out as a result.
Characteristics of civil law system
Trial by jury is less common
Laws of a country are codified.
Civil code systems are also mainly inquisitorial rather than adversarial. That means that courts are there to track down the truth and not to be a forum where two sides battle to demonstrate to a judge or jury who is right and who is wrong. Judges in civil code trials are more active in questioning witnesses, challenging evidence, and in some cases, directing investigations.
In what ways can developed countries be distinguished from developing countries?
Stronger property rights
Less emphasis on agriculture
Less corruption
Less emphasis on informal economy
Better quality of life
What is English Common Law and why is it important in the US?
In England, from the times of the Normans, judges would make rulings on legal disputes based on past rulings on similar disputes.
Much of American law has a significant basis in English Common Law.
Commentaries on the Laws of England
William Blackstone compiled past rulings in various areas of English Law. This played an important role in the development of American Law.
German Court System
Different lower courts depending on area of law and severity of offense. There are labor law courts, tax law courts. There are also criminal law courts, but different courts will handle different criminal cases, depending on how severe the punishment is for the offense in question.
There are no juries in Germany.
These decisions can be appealed in appeals courts.
Federal Constitutional Court
Determines whether laws comply with German Basic Law, Germany’s Constitution.
Who can appeal to Federal Constitutional Court in Germany?
President, the Chancellor, 1/3 of the Bundestag or the Bundesrat, or any of the ministries of the federal German government. Regular citizens can also appeal.
How does the Federal Constitutional Court in Germany decide cases?
Court contains 16 judges. For each case, the judges are divided into panels of 8. One panel examines a case and decides it by simple majority. Then, it goes to the other panel who examines and decides by simple majority. If the two panels disagree on the issue, all judges must meet and deliberate and then, vote again.
How are German Constitutional Court judges selected? How long is the term? Minimum age of appointment?
By two-thirds majority in Bundestag and Bundesrat.
12 years; however, even if judge is in middle of term, at age of 65, they must retire.
Age 40.
Social regulation
Government regulation protects the public from harm to their health and environment like environmental protection, food safety, child labor laws, and more.
Economic regulation
Governmental regulation of the economy such as antitrust laws, macroeconomic policy, minimum wage laws, and more.
Privatization. Rationales?
Transferring ownership of companies or property from public to private ownership
Privatization of government-owned monopolies boosts competition.
If a company is privatized, it can be managed in a more cost-efficient manner.
By transferring an entity to private ownership, the government can reduce its expenditures and tax the now-privatized entity.
Partial privatization can increase participation of the public in the management of government property or enterprises.
Deregulation effects?
No Cost-of-Service Regulation
No Cross-Subsidization
Features of Italian Judicial System
Judges are appointed within the judicial system. Parliament has no say in judicial appointments.
Italy has a mix of an adversarial and inquisitorial system in the courtroom.
Many laws conflict with one another, which makes the judicial system very slow.
Who administers the Italian Justice System?
Ministry of Justice
High Council of the Judiciary, which is responsible for appointing judges in judicial systems, and managing them.
Lower Courts of Italy
Italy has different lower courts that specialize in different areas like criminal law, labor law, financial matters, and land disputes
Court of Assizes. Features?
Type of Italian lower Court that hears serious criminal cases.
2 judges and jury of 6 to try case and punish defendant if latter is guilty.
Organization of Italian Court System
Lower Courts
First Level of Appeals: Court of Appeals hears appeals for civil, labor, and criminal cases
Court of Appeals of Assizes hears appeals from Courts of Assizes
Supreme Court Level:
Court of Cassation
Constitutional Court
Court of Cassation
Highest Appeals Court in Italy.
What questions does the Constitutional Court of Italy deal with?
It determines whether or not state and regional laws are in line with the Italian Constitution.
It decides whether or not to hold referendums on various issues.
It hears indictments issued by Parliament.
It resolves conflicts between government ministries, between the nation and its regions, and between regions.
Cost-of-service regulation
a form of government regulation where prices for a service, like electricity or water, are set based on the actual costs incurred by the company providing that service
Cross-subsidization
a pricing strategy where a business charges more for one product or service to offset the cost of a lower-priced product or service.
What form of government is good for business?
Democracy
What type of legal system does China have?
Civil law system
History of Chinese Constitution
China modeled its legal system after Germany in 1954 Constitution.
Constitution was amended in 1975, 1978, 1982, and 2004.
Agents of Political Socialization
Family
Friends
Education
Political Parties
Media
Professional Organizations (Trade Unions, Industry Associations etc.)
Religion
Ways that political socialization happens
Imitation: Copying political behavior of others
Instruction: Being told that a certain political behavior is acceptable.
Motivation: Being rewarded or punished for engaging in a particular political behavior.
Name five ways that religion shapes international politics.
Religiously orientated individuals supporting leaders, policies and organizations that align with their religious beliefs. (Ex: Evangelicals voting for pro-Israel GOP politicians)
Religious organizations attempting to influence key decision-makers on policy issues that concern their religious beliefs. (US Conference of Catholic Bishops opposing the U government’s decision to invade of Iraq)
Transnational organizations spreading their movement across borders through recruitment, fundraising, humanitarian aid and even militant actions. (Ex: Islamic Terror Groups, Khalistan Movement)
Religious organizations that have, or basically have, diplomatic-like power to participate directly in international organizations and international relations. (Ex: The Roman Catholic Church has its own country, the Vatican City, which conducts diplomacy with other countries and participates in international forums such as the UN.)
Intergovernmental religious-based organizations that provide a forum for discussion and unified action for their member states to advance their religious-based agendas. (Organization of Islamic States advancing blasphemy laws)
Arab League
Group of 22 Arab-Speaking States to advance the interests of Arabs.
Founded in 1945 in Cairo.
Significance of Arab league
It is pretty weak, but gives hope to aspirations for a unified Arab state.
History of Arab league
Opposed Israel in its War of Independence
Egypt’s Nasser briefly unified Egypt and Syria for 3 years.
Civil War in Yemen was a proxy war between Egypt and Saudi Arabia.
Some countries have normalized relations with Israel.
Arab League has played a role in the Israel-Palestine peace process.
During the Arab Spring, it imposed a no-fly zone in Libya. it also suspended Syria’s membership during its civil war.
Indigenous peoples
the original inhabitants of a region before settlers arrived
Characteristics of indigenous cultures
Culture is transmitted via oral tradition
Culture is deeply connected to their ancestral land.
Challenges facing indigenous peoples
Language extinction
Loss of access to ancestral lands and natural resources
Loss of their cultures
Environmental justice
Government oppression
Human trafficking
Declaration on the Right of Indigenous People
Regulates the treatment of indigenous peoples and protects their rights
Indigenous Peoples Movement
Global movement dedicated to the cause of indigenous peoples and their rights
History of nonprofits
Started in US in 19th Century. Communities formed organizations to overcome the problems of the day.
In the 20th century, Americans were accustomed to forming extra-governmental organizations to build hospitals, libraries, and other institutions for the public good.
In Europe, many NGOs, with some definitions including trade unions, developed in retaliation to perceived excesses of capitalism. They included social service organizations with a mission to provide services and support to the poor or disabled, and advocacy groups aiming to change laws and government budget allocations to improve working conditions and provide additional social services.
Public vs private nonprofit
Public: Almost exclusive funded through government grants
Private: may be run by a dedicated group or a single family; a portion of whose assets are allocated to the work of their private non-profit organization
Operational NGOs
focused on international development and providing services to people suffering from poverty, natural disasters, conflict, public health crises, the effects of climate change, and other challenge
Ex: Red Cross, Rotary International
Advocacy NGOs
NGOs that are involved in advocacy work.
Ex: Amnesty International, Greenpeace
Treaty of Maastricht
Members of European Economic Community inducted the beginning of the European Union.
Wanted to expand inter-state cooperation beyond the area of economics
Treaty of Amsterdam
Set the stage for the creation of the euro
Stated the goal of the EU was to promote employment and human rights in member states.
Timeline of introduction of euro
First introduced in 1999 for electronic transactions.
In 2002, euro bank notes and coins were first printed.
2000s EU Expansion
2004: Czech Republic, Slovenia, Lithuania, Latvia, Hungary, Estonia, Slovakia, Poland, Malta, and Cyprus enter EU.
2007: Bulgaria and Romania enter EU.
2013: Croatia enters EU.
Treaty of Lisbon
Reformed EU institutions
2008 financial crisis impact on EU.
Many states like Greece and Spain were in financial trouble, and needed to be bailed out with the help of other states. This has caused resentment and anti-EU sentiment to rise.
African Union
Exists to promote security, economic development in Africa.
History of African Union
First, it was Organization of African Unity, founded in 1963.
In 2002, African Union replaced it.
Criticism of African Union
- The AU satisfies Western interests at the expense of Africans.
- Lax commitment towards human rights
- Poor peacekeeping efforts
Most influential countries in OPEC
Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, and Venezuela
How do countries join OPEC?
Unanimous approval from current members
Conflicts within OPEC
Member states have often fought over the setting of prices for their oil. Some members are okay with lower prices while others want higher prices.
When was OPEC created? Who created it? Why was it created?
Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, and Venezuela founded it in 1960 to increase their leverage against the U.S.’s demand for cheap oil at their expense.
History of OPEC
OPEC successfully raised oil prices for US consumers in the 60s. An increase in oil production in the 1970s lowered prices until the OPEC Embargo in response to US support for Israel in the Yom Kippur War. This created oil shortages and price shocks for Americans.
In the 80s, US looked for other countries for oil. This played a role in lowering oil prices.
In the 90s and 2000s, OPEC began to cooperate with non-OPEC oil-producing countries, and sought to improve relations amongst the member states.
Causes of stagflation in 1970s
Excessive government spending
OPEC Embargo
Gold standard
US Dollar was a fixed-rate currency.
Nixon macroeconomic policies
Tried to cut welfare, but welfare spending grew.
Lowered taxes on the wealthy.
Price and wage controls
Converted the dollar from a fixed-rate regime to a floating rate regime
Ended gold standard
How successful for Nixon’s policies?
Initially, they worked to manage stagflation, but after the OPEC embargo, stagflation spiraled out of control.
Energy patterns that reduced stagflation.
Americans consumed more coal and less oil.
Terrorism
violent action undertaken by a non-state actor against civilian targets for the purpose of achieving a political objective
Seven categories of Chinese Law
Constitutional Law
Civil and Commercial Law
Economic Law (Property Law and Taxes)
Administrative Law (Pertains to matters of state administration)
Social law (Workers’ rights)
Criminal Law
Procedural Law (Governs lawsuits and other legal actions with standardized procedures like civil procedure in civil court)
Judicial Branch of China
First Level: Supreme People’s Court (hears appeals)
Second Level: Higher People’s Court (Hears appeals and high-profile criminal cases)
Third Level: Intermediate People’s Court (Hears high-profile criminal cases with death penalty or life imprisonment)
Fourth Level: Basic People’s Court (Hears criminal cases without death pernalty or life imprisonment, and also hears civil cases)
Four Special Courts: Tribunal Courts (handle minor court cases in rural China), Military Court (Hears cases related to military), Railway Transportation Court (cases related to railroad industry), Maritime Court (commercial shipping cases)
Putin’s policies 2000 to 2008 to reinvigorate Russian economy
Corporate tax cuts
Nationalization of certain industries like oil
What happened to Russian economy after 2008?
The Russian economy stagnated due to the Great Recession, to which Russia was vulnerable due to its excessive dependence on oil. Sanctions after the annexation of Crimea further hurt Russia’s economy.
Bolotnaya Square protests
Protests in May 2012 against authoritarianism in Russia. Was suppressed by the government.
Putin’s social policies
Censorship of LGBT activism and “propaganda”
State-funded TV outlets, like Russia Today, promote a biased view of the government and the news.
Groups that receive funding from abroad must register as “foreign agents”. They are consistently audited.
Nigeria’s economic history
Once a very agricultural society that exported products abroad, it shifted to the oil industry. As people moved to cities for jobs in the oil industry, this weakened agriculture by leaving a shortage of farm workers. This hurt Nigeria’s economy and created a food shortage.
Hindrances on Nigeria’s economy
Resource Curse (Excessive focus on the oil industry rather than diversifying the economy)
Government corruption (Oil revenues go into the pockets of politicians and government officials instead of being used to help average Nigerians)
Boko Haram
Problems in USSR before Perestroika and Glasnost
Stagnating economy. Too much emphasis on military spending. Manufacturing declined.
Perestroika definition and aspects.
Market-driven reforms of Soviet command economy under Gorbachev
Allowed farmers and manufacturers to sell and price goods based on market forces.
Allowed for creation of privately owned companies
Loosened restrictions on foreign trade, especially with the West.
Encouraged investment from the West into the USSR.
Glasnost definition and aspects.
Democratic reforms under Gorbachev
- Allowed freedom of expression and greater media freedom
- Allowed ⅔ of legislature seats to be democratically elected, which severely weakened the Communists.
How did Gorbachev introduce the policy of Perestroika and Glasnost?
A speech in Leningrad in may 1985
Impact of Perestroika and Glasnost
Decline of Communist Party, and eventual collapse of communism across the Warsaw Pact.
Economic decline.
Greater inflation, including higher food prices.
Higher government spending and government debt
Cultural Revolution. Its relation to Deng Xiaoping.
After the disastrous Great Leap Forward, Mao decided to consolidate his power against the Communist Party bureaucracy by utilizing the young Red Guard to consolidate fealty to Communism as an ideology among broader Chinese society. This led to purges of his political opponents, including Deng Xiaoping.
How did Deng Xiaoping come back?
He came back after a failed coup in 1971. After Mao died, he was succeeded by Hua Guofeng. Deng Xiaoping represented pragmatism whereas Hua represented the Maoist wing of the party. Eventually, Deng won over the latter to lead the Communist Party.
Causes of China’s economic problems in the 1970s
Collectivization of farms in the Great Leap Forward.
Closing the Chinese economy from the rest of the world.
Economic Reforms under Deng Xiaoping
Four Modernizations (Agriculture, Industry, National Defense, Science and Technology)
Created Four Special Economic Zones used to attract foreign investment with low labor costs and taxes
Allowed people to earn profit for economic activity (Responsibility System)
Effects of Xiaoping’s Economic Reforms
Increased farmer incomes and surplus agricultural production
Widened urban-rural inequality
Urbanization
Causes of Economic Success in China, According to Economists
Integrating into the Global Economy
Decentralization (Deng Xiaoping gave more power to local leaders to come up with innovative economic ideas)
Gradual economic reform in China in contrast to the shock therapy implemented in many Communist Bloc countries. The latter led to much short-term economic suffering in the Communist Bloc.
Shock Therapy
Quickly transitioning a country’s economy from communism or socialism to capitalism via privatization, austerity, and lifting of price controls.
Major moments in Democracy Movement in China
Democracy Wall Movement in 1978, which eventually was suppressed. Led by Wei Jingsheng.
Tiananmen Square Protests and Massacre
Core Values of American Political Culture
Liberty, Equality, Democracy, Individualism, Patriotism
Types of political cultures, according to Almond and Verba
Participant: Citizens are not only aware of the political system but are active participants in politics. Ex: Modern Western democracies
Subject: Citizens have knowledge of the political system, but either don’t participate in politics much or are given little to no right of political dissent. Ex: Azerbaijan
Parochial: Citizens have limited awareness about the existence of their central government. This results in little interest in politics.
Impact of Almond and Verba political culture on the importance of public opinion
In participant political cultures, public opinion matters very much in policymaking. In subject and parochial political cultures, not so much.
Samuel Huntington on political culture
He stated his belief that in the future there would be wars that would be fought based on culture.
He divided the world into eight categories:
Western Civilization: Europe, North America
Japanese Civilization: Japan
Islamic Civilization: Arabian Peninsula, North Africa, Iberian Peninsula, Central Asia
Hindu Civilization: India
Orthodox Civilization: Russia
Latin-American Civilization: Central and South America
African Civilization: many parts of Africa
Sinic Civilization: China, Chinese communities in Southeast Asia, Korea, Vietnam
Daniel Elazar on political culture of various US states
Moralistic political culture: Government exists to improve society.
Individualistic political culture: Emphasizes individual rights. Government exists to maintain order and protect individual freedom rather than to promote societal good. Citizens are focused on individual self-interest for themselves rather than common good.
Traditionalist: Political decisions are made for the benefit of the elites to maintain their status at the top of society. Less civic participation is encouraged because such benefits the elites.
African Union structure
Parliament
Assembly (Heads of state and government across Africa) (Governing Body of AU)
The African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights has jurisdiction over all cases submitting to it concerning the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights and related human rights laws and protocols adopted by the states in the African Union.
The Peace and Security Council is charged with promotion of peace and security for and among member-states.
Causes of democratization
Culture of Society
External Influence and Pressure from Other Countries or International Organizations
Social issues can trigger transition to democracy
Social media and media influences
Education
Natural Resources
Strong opposition leaders to authoritarian regime
What correlates with democracy in a society?
Economic prosperity and equality among citizens
Supranationalism
Governments coming together to form organizations to formulate policies of mutual benefit.
Ex: European Union, NATO, IMF
Why does the Chinese Government resist democratization?
There are longstanding ethnic tensions between the Han, and other ethnic groups like the Uyghur and Tibetans. Steps towards democracy may empower separatist movements like Gorbachov did with Glasnost.
Laborers will demand greater rights, including not being forced to work in sweatshop-like conditions.
Glimmers of Hope for the Potential for Democratization in China.
Younger generations are more educated and greater economic power, which will allow them to demand a greater say in governance.
China’s middle class is growing. These people may want a greater say in government.
The youth are circumventing internet restrictions.
Actions taken by Xi to consolidate power.
Purging political enemies in Communist Party, often accusing them of corruption.
Repealing term limits for Presidency.
