Communist Government in the USSR - 1917-1985 Flashcards
1
Q
What were the immediate outcomes of the October Revolution of 1917?
A
- The Bolsheviks seized power and established the world’s first communist state, the Soviet Union.
- The Provisional Government, set up after Tsar Nicholas II’s abdication, was overthrown.
- Despite being a small party, the Bolsheviks justified their rule as representing the interests of the workers, but in reality, they were a minority party that seized power through force.
2
Q
What were the key features of the Bolshevik government system after the October Revolution?
A
- Authoritarian and highly centralised.
- The Party maintained dominance through terror and repression.
- Eventually, a one-party state was established by 1921, where all other political groups were banned.
3
Q
What opposition did the Bolsheviks face while establishing a one-party state?
A
- Other left-wing groups (e.g., Socialist Revolutionaries, Mensheviks) were excluded from power.
- Right-wing and liberal groups feared Bolshevik policies that would strip them of wealth and political freedom.
- Nationalist groups (e.g., Ukrainians, Poles, Finns) sought independence following the collapse of the Tsarist regime.
- Despite increasing support, the Bolsheviks had to rely on force and terror to maintain power.
4
Q
What was the influence of Karl Marx’s theories on the Bolshevik Party’s ideology?
A
- Marx believed history unfolded through class struggles, progressing from primitive communism to a classless, stateless society (communism).
- The Bolsheviks adopted Marx’s ideas, seeing historical change as inevitable, with the working class (proletariat) overthrowing the capitalist bourgeoisie.
- Lenin adapted Marxist theory to argue for a vanguard party to lead the proletariat, establish socialism, and eventually allow communism to develop.
5
Q
How did Lenin’s interpretation of Marxism shape Soviet governance?
A
- Lenin believed the process from capitalism to communism should be accelerated by a highly centralised party (the Bolsheviks) acting on behalf of the workers.
- The Bolshevik Party would initially hold power and implement socialism through government control over the economy, representing the interests of the workers.
- Lenin believed that once counter-revolution was suppressed, the state would “wither away” and allow communism to emerge.
6
Q
What are the key stages of historical change as outlined by Karl Marx?
A
Primitive Communism:
- Early societies with no social classes or private property, where humans lived as collectives.
Feudalism:
- Power held by land-owning aristocracy, with peasants working the land.
Capitalism: Emergence of the bourgeoisie (factory owners, merchants) and the proletariat (industrial workers). Marx saw this as an exploitative relationship.
Socialism:
- Workers’ organisations form a dictatorship of the proletariat, distributing goods and services according to need.
Communism:
- A stateless, classless society where goods are distributed based on need, and government “withers away.”
7
Q
How did the Bolsheviks justify their seizure of power in 1917?
A
- They portrayed the October Revolution as a mass uprising of workers, although it was actually a well-planned coup by a minority party.
- Bolshevik propaganda depicted the storming of the Winter Palace as a heroic action, despite the palace being largely unguarded.
- Their primary justification was to represent the interests of the workers and peasants, despite lacking widespread popular support.
8
Q
What was the outcome of the 1921 Party Congress in relation to Bolshevik rule?
A
- By 1921, the Bolsheviks had effectively established a one-party state, banning all other political groups.
- The congress was a key moment in consolidating Bolshevik power, marking the shift from a revolutionary coalition to authoritarian rule.
9
Q
Define the key terms used in Marxist theory and Bolshevik governance.
A
Proletariat:
- Industrial workers, the class that Marx saw as being exploited by the bourgeoisie.
Bourgeoisie:
- The capitalist class, owners of the means of production (factories, industries, banks).
Dictatorship of the Proletariat:
- A government formed by the working class to overthrow the bourgeoisie and prevent counter-revolution.
10
Q
What was the Constituent Assembly in Russia and why was it significant?
A
- A parliament elected by the people of Russia.
- Seen as a potential first step toward forming a democratically elected government.
- The Bolsheviks, after taking power, agreed to hold elections for the Assembly in November 1917.
- Despite their agreement, Lenin dissolved the Assembly after it posed a threat to Bolshevik rule, as the Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs) gained more support in the election.
11
Q
How did the Bolsheviks handle other left-wing groups like the Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs) and Mensheviks?
A
- The Bolsheviks, particularly Lenin, rejected the idea of sharing power with other left-wing groups.
- Lenin insisted that there would be no coalition, even rejecting calls for one from fellow Bolsheviks such as Lev Kamenev.
- Some left-wing SRs initially joined the Bolshevik government, but this cooperation was short-lived.
- The SRs and Mensheviks saw the Constituent Assembly as a chance to regain power, but after they gained more seats than the Bolsheviks, Lenin dissolved the Assembly, calling it an instrument of the bourgeoisie.
- Instead, Lenin used the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, where the Bolsheviks had more control, to maintain support.
12
Q
What measures did the Bolsheviks take to suppress opposition parties and consolidate power?
A
- The Bolsheviks removed the vote from “bourgeois” classes such as employers and priests, cutting off potential support for opposition parties.
- Restrictions were placed on the publication of newspapers by the Mensheviks and SRs, limiting their ability to spread opposition ideas.
- The left-wing SRs lost influence when they walked out of the government in protest over the Bolshevik decision to pull out of WWI.
- In March 1918, the Bolshevik Party renamed itself the Communist Party and by 1921, all other political parties were effectively banned.
- Arrests of Menshevik and SR members began, with 5,000 Mensheviks arrested in early 1921. Further waves of arrests continued, and by 1922, opposition parties ceased to exist.
13
Q
What were the key characteristics of the Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs)?
A
- The SRs were committed to democratic socialism and believed in the right of groups to govern themselves, including peasant organisations.
- They gained significant support from the peasantry, who were the largest social group in Russia at the time.
- The SRs were one of the groups continuing the Russian revolutionary tradition of populism.
- In the 1917 elections for the Constituent Assembly, the SRs emerged as the largest party, with 410 seats.
- They were divided into right-wing and left-wing factions, weakening their overall effectiveness.
-SRs were involved in an assassination attempt on Lenin in August 1918, leading to a wave of arrests of their members.
14
Q
What were the Mensheviks and what role did they play during the Russian Revolution?
A
- The Mensheviks were a more moderate communist group, having split from the Bolsheviks in 1903 over differences in policy.
- Unlike the Bolsheviks, they were willing to cooperate with the bourgeoisie (capitalist class) to bring about gradual reforms.
- The Mensheviks had a larger membership than the Bolsheviks in 1917, but their influence was weakened by their earlier cooperation with the Provisional Government.
- They demanded a coalition government with the Bolsheviks, which Lenin rejected, leading to their opposition.
- Divisions within their leadership, especially between Fyodor Dan and Yuli Martov, further weakened their position.
- By 1920, Martov had left Russia, and by 1921, the Mensheviks were largely dissolved, with many of their members arrested and exiled.
15
Q
How did Lenin ensure that the Bolsheviks remained in power in post-revolutionary Russia?
A
- Lenin dissolved the Constituent Assembly after its results were unfavorable to the Bolsheviks, claiming it was a tool of the bourgeoisie.
- He replaced the Assembly with the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, a body where the Bolsheviks had more influence.
- By 1921, Lenin’s government had banned all opposition parties, consolidating Bolshevik control over Russia.
- Lenin also removed voting rights from the bourgeoisie and implemented restrictions on opposition publications to suppress dissent.
- He used terror and arrests to eliminate the SRs and Mensheviks, effectively eliminating organized opposition by 1922.
16
Q
What was the fate of opposition groups under Bolshevik rule?
A
- Mensheviks and SRs were systematically marginalized and repressed.
- Many SRs were arrested, especially after the assassination attempt on Lenin, with thousands imprisoned or exiled.
- The Menshevik leadership was divided and weakened, and by 1921, most of the Menshevik Party was dissolved or in exile.
- The Bolshevik regime banned opposition parties and used the Red Terror to suppress dissent, ensuring that the Communist Party remained the only political force in Russia.
17
Q
What was the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and when was it signed?
A
- Signed in March 1918, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was an agreement between Soviet Russia and the Central Powers (mainly Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire) that ended Russian involvement in World War I.
- It marked Russia’s withdrawal from the war at a significant cost, with Russia ceding large territories to the Central Powers.
18
Q
What territories did Russia lose as a result of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk?
A
- Lithuania, Estonia, and Latvia (the Baltic States)
- Finland
- Ukraine
- Parts of the Caucasus region
These territorial losses were seen as a major humiliation for Russia and sparked anger, especially among conservatives and military officers who had served in the Tsarist army.
19
Q
How did the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk influence the conservatives’ opposition to the Bolsheviks?
A
- The conservative opposition, which had initially been demoralized and disoriented by the October Revolution, found renewed cause for outrage following the signing of the Treaty.
- The loss of territory was perceived as a national humiliation, especially by military officers who had served under the Tsar, and they were determined to restore Russia’s pride.
- The conservatives believed that the only way to restore the nation’s pride and the reputation of the armed forces was to overthrow the Bolshevik regime and reject the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.
20
Q
What was the significance of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk for the Bolshevik regime?
A
- The Treaty allowed the Bolsheviks to end Russia’s involvement in World War I, which had been a key aim for Lenin and the Bolshevik Party.
- However, it also triggered strong opposition from conservatives and military leaders, who viewed the treaty as a national humiliation.
- The Bolsheviks had to navigate domestic outrage over the territorial losses and the perception that they were weakening Russia’s position on the world stage.
21
Q
Why did the conservatives view the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk negatively?
A
- The Treaty resulted in the loss of significant Russian territory, including key areas such as Ukraine and the Baltic States, which was seen as a humiliation for Russia.
- Military officers who had served in the Tsarist army viewed the Treaty as a blow to Russian honor and were eager to restore national pride.
- The conservative elite believed that the Treaty undermined Russia’s strength and security, leading them to seek a way to overthrow the Bolshevik government and reverse the losses.
22
Q
How did the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk contribute to the outbreak of the Russian Civil War?
A
- The Treaty intensified opposition to Bolshevik rule, especially among the conservatives, military officers, and those who had supported the Tsarist regime.
- The loss of territories and the perception of Bolshevik weakness sparked the formation of anti-Bolshevik factions, leading to the Russian Civil War between the Red Army (Bolsheviks) and various opposition forces, including
White Russian conservatives. - The Treaty became a rallying point for those who sought to restore the Tsarist order or implement a more conservative government in Russia.
23
Q
What was the significance of the Tenth Party Congress held by the Bolsheviks in March 1921?
A
- The Tenth Party Congress marked a shift in Bolshevik priorities after the civil war, focusing on addressing internal divisions within the Party.
- By 1921, the Bolshevik Party membership had grown significantly, from 300,000 in late 1917 to over 730,000 members, which created new challenges for Party unity and discipline.
- The Congress saw the introduction of the ban on factions within the Party, aimed at enforcing conformity and centralizing power under the leadership of Lenin.
24
Q
Why did Lenin feel the need to impose the “On Party Unity” policy at the Tenth Party Congress in 1921?
A
- Lenin was concerned about the growing size of the Party and the potential for internal dissent as membership surged.
- The Party faced external threats, including peasant uprisings and mutinies, and Lenin believed that the Party needed to present a unified front to maintain control over Russia.
- The policy was partly a reaction to internal unrest, such as the Kronstadt Mutiny and the Tambov Rising, which showed that Bolshevik power was not as secure as it might have seemed.
25
Q
What was the Kronstadt Mutiny of 1921 and why was it significant?
A
- The Kronstadt Mutiny occurred in March 1921 at the Kronstadt naval base, where sailors, previously strong supporters of the Bolshevik Revolution, rebelled against the imposition of Bolshevik orders on the local soviets.
- The mutineers’ slogan was “Soviets without Bolsheviks”, demanding a return to more democratic governance within the Party.
- The mutiny was brutally crushed by the Red Army, but it was a major shock to the Bolshevik regime, highlighting dissatisfaction with the Party’s authoritarian direction.
26
Q
What was the Tambov Rising, and how did the Bolsheviks respond to it?
A
- The Tambov Rising was a peasant uprising in central Russia, sparked by the Bolshevik government’s requisitioning of grain to supply the cities and the army.
- The uprising was initially spontaneous, but the peasants were able to form a Green Army and take control of a large area.
- The Bolsheviks deployed over 50,000 troops to suppress the rebellion, illustrating the serious challenges the government faced from the rural population.
27
Q
How did the Bolshevik leadership respond to internal opposition, like the Kronstadt Mutiny and the Tambov Rising, in 1921?
A
- The Kronstadt Mutiny was put down by the Red Army using force, sending a clear message that opposition would not be tolerated.
- The Tambov Rising was similarly suppressed with military force, as the Bolshevik government feared that any sign of weakness would undermine its authority.
- Lenin and the Party used these uprisings as justification for tightening internal control and reinforcing Party unity through measures like the ban on factions.
28
Q
How did the rapid growth of the Bolshevik Party in 1921 impact its internal stability?
A
- The Party’s membership grew from 300,000 in 1917 to over 730,000 in 1921, which led to challenges in maintaining Party discipline and unity.
- The influx of new members posed a threat to the stability of the Party, as many of them had little experience or allegiance to Bolshevik ideology, making it more difficult to control.
- The Tenth Party Congress and the introduction of policies like the ban on factions were responses to these challenges, aiming to centralize control and limit dissent within the Party.
29
Q
What was the structure of government under Lenin, and how was it organized?
A
- Lenin’s government was organized with a centralized structure focused on quick decision-making during the Russian Civil War.
- Key bodies included the Sovnarkom (Council of People’s Commissars), which acted as the government’s cabinet and made key decisions.
- The Central Executive Committee was larger and oversaw the government’s work.
The All-Russian Congress of Soviets was the supreme law-making body, and decisions passed by the Sovnarkom had to be approved by it. - Below these bodies were provincial and city soviets, representing local governance.
30
Q
What was the role of the Sovnarkom in Lenin’s government?
A
- The Sovnarkom (Council of People’s Commissars) was the key decision-making body, similar to a cabinet of top government ministers.
- It consisted of around 20 members and was responsible for issuing orders that were implemented across Russia.
- The Sovnarkom met daily during the civil war to make fast, critical decisions, and its decisions were later rubber-stamped by the All-Russian Congress of Soviets.
31
Q
How democratic was Lenin’s government in practice, despite its claims?
A
- The government claimed to be based on Democratic Centralism, a principle where decisions were made centrally and passed down for implementation by local soviets.
- In reality, the soviets were undermined by the Bolsheviks, who controlled them and turned them into rubber-stamping bodies.
- The system of direct rule by decree meant that local soviets no longer represented the workers and were instead dominated by Bolshevik officials.
32
Q
How did Party control over the state evolve after 1919?
A
- By the early 1920s, real power had shifted from the state apparatus to the Bolshevik Party.
- The Politburo, made up of leading Party members, became the most important decision-making body, taking over from the Central Executive Committee.
- The Sovnarkom became largely a rubber-stamping body as key decisions were made by the Politburo.
- Leading Bolsheviks like Lenin, Zinoviev, and Kamenev played crucial roles in both the Party and state structures.
33
Q
What was the Politburo, and what role did it play in Bolshevik governance?
A
- The Politburo was a small group of seven to nine leading Party members, including figures like Lenin, Zinoviev, Trotsky, and Stalin.
- It took over from the larger Central Committee and became the primary body for making key decisions affecting Party policy.
- The Politburo met daily and was more influential than the Sovnarkom in shaping the direction of the Soviet state.
34
Q
What was Democratic Centralism, and how did it function in practice under Lenin?
A
- Democratic Centralism was a system where decision-making began with the workers’ soviets, and decisions were passed down through a hierarchical structure.
- In theory, soviets would represent the wishes of the workers at the local level, but in practice, Bolshevik control over the soviets meant they became instruments for imposing central decisions rather than representing workers’ interests.
- Local soviets became subordinate to the Party, with decisions made centrally and enforced through local Party bosses.
35
Q
How did the role of the Party Congress change under Lenin?
A
- The Party Congress was originally designed to be a forum for debate and decision-making among local Party branches.
- However, after the On Party Unity policy was passed in 1921, the role of the Congress diminished, as internal debate was restricted.
- The Congress met yearly under Lenin, but its influence over policy decisions declined, and power was increasingly concentrated in the hands of the Politburo.
36
Q
How did Lenin’s Party structure mirror the state apparatus?
A
- Lenin’s Party structure mirrored the state apparatus by creating parallel bodies in both institutions.
- The Party’s Central Committee and Politburo mirrored the Central Executive Committee and Sovnarkom of the state.
- However, while the state became increasingly an administrative body, the Party controlled decision-making, and the Politburo ultimately overshadowed both the Sovnarkom and the Central Executive Committee.
37
Q
How did the centralization of power evolve within the Bolshevik Party?
A
- The power within the Bolshevik Party became increasingly centralized in the hands of the Politburo after the civil war.
- Local Party branches were firmly brought under the control of central Party organizations.
- Centralized decision-making during the civil war was maintained after the war, as the leadership was reluctant to give up power.
- This shift ensured quick responses to changing circumstances but also marked a trend toward authoritarianism within the Party structure.
38
Q
What was Lenin’s personal role in the centralization of power within the Bolshevik Party?
A
- Lenin held official positions as Chair of the Sovnarkom and a member of the Politburo.
- Despite advocating for a collective leadership, Lenin had significant personal influence and could align the Party through personal authority during critical decisions.
- He used the threat of resignation to bring the Party in line during heated debates, such as over the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and the New Economic Policy (NEP).
-After 1922, illness limited Lenin’s influence, and his power waned in the final years of his life.
39
Q
What was the nomenklatura system, and how did it contribute to centralizing power in the Party?
A
- The nomenklatura system was a method of appointing Party officials to jobs from a list of approved candidates, ensuring loyalty to the Party leadership.
- It encouraged loyalty, as failure to remain loyal could result in being removed from the list and losing career prospects.
- This system was a key tool for centralization, managed by the General Secretary, and allowed the Party to exercise tighter control over its bureaucracy.
40
Q
How did the growth of Party bureaucracy affect the Communist Party under Lenin?
A
- The Communist Party grew significantly, reaching about one million members by 1924.
- The growth in membership included many who joined to improve career prospects, rather than out of ideological commitment.
- A large bureaucratic class formed within the Party, focused more on self-preservation than on benefiting the industrial proletariat.
- The nomenklatura system ensured that loyalty to Party leaders was a key factor in career advancement.
41
Q
How did the Soviet Constitution of 1924 contribute to the centralization of power in the Soviet state?
A
- The Soviet Constitution of 1924 created the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), which, while nominally federal, centralized power in Moscow.
- The Communist Party maintained tight control over Party bodies in the various republics, despite the constitution’s federalist language.
- Russia dominated the USSR, making up 90% of the land-area and 72% of the population.
- The constitution reinforced the centralization of authority, with Moscow holding ultimate control over all republics, such as Ukraine.
42
Q
Was Lenin considered a dictator, and how do historians challenge this view?
A
- Some historians argue that Lenin’s centralization of power suggests he was a dictator, but this view is contested.
- Moscow struggled to fully control remote provinces, where local officials continued to exercise significant autonomy.
Research, such as by Robert Service (1997), shows that during the civil war, local Party members welcomed stronger direction from above as they faced challenges and chaos. - Lenin’s approach reflected a pragmatic attempt to gain support and maintain stability, rather than an absolute dictatorial grip.
43
Q
How did the structure of the Soviet Union (USSR) reflect centralization of power?
A
- The USSR was a federal state in name but in practice it was highly centralized under the control of the Communist Party in Moscow.
- The Soviet Constitution of 1924 confirmed the dominance of the Communist Party but gave some representation to Party members from the republics.
Russia was the dominant republic, accounting for 90% of the land area and 72% of the population, and it held substantial political power in the USSR. - The Constitution’s federalist language was essentially symbolic, as Party bodies in the republics were controlled by central Party leadership in Moscow.
44
Q
What was the role of the Cheka in the Bolshevik regime under Lenin?
A
- The Cheka (All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution, Sabotage, and Speculation) was established in December 1917 to suppress counter-revolutionary activity, sabotage, and speculation.
- It operated outside the law, using terror to maintain control, arresting and executing opponents, both external and internal to the Party.
- The Cheka played a key role in establishing central control and purging enemies within the Party, and was responsible for up to 200,000 executions between 1917 and 1923.
45
Q
How did the Cheka evolve into the OGPU, and what changes occurred in the use of terror?
A
- In 1922, the Cheka was replaced by the OGPU (All-Union State Political Administration), marking a shift towards more bureaucratic and discreet terror.
- The OGPU focused more inwardly, targeting Party members and conducting large purges, a process that was less overt than the earlier, more violent period of the Cheka.
- Terror under the OGPU became more organized, and the secret police force grew significantly, from 40,000 in 1918 to 250,000 by 1921.
46
Q
Who was Felix Dzerzhinsky, and how did he contribute to the Cheka’s role in Bolshevik terror?
A
- Felix Dzerzhinsky was the head of the Cheka and played a crucial role in implementing Bolshevik terror.
- Coming from a wealthy Polish background, he was ruthless in his pursuit of enemies of the state, focusing on the destruction of bourgeois elements.
- Dzerzhinsky’s role was pivotal in ensuring the Cheka’s power and its ability to execute terror without the use of official courts.
- He was known as the “Shield of the Revolution” and was single-minded and dedicated to enforcing the Party’s control through terror.
47
Q
What were the Chistka purges, and how did they impact the Bolshevik Party under Lenin?
A
- Chistka (cleansings) were purges of Party members, both violent and non-violent, carried out periodically under Lenin’s regime.
- These purges were used to maintain discipline within the Party, removing those deemed untrustworthy or who were seen as deviating from Party lines.
- By 1924, about one-third of the Party had been purged, reflecting Lenin’s growing need to control potential opposition within the Party.
- The Chistka helped maintain a high level of centralization, ensuring loyalty to the leadership.
48
Q
What were the main targets of Bolshevik terror during the civil war, and why was terror used?
A
- Bolshevik terror targeted counter-revolutionaries, sabotage, speculation, and, increasingly, opposition within the Party.
- The terror was used to maintain discipline and central control, especially in the context of the civil war when the Bolsheviks were a minority group and needed to secure power.
- Individuals such as Bim-Bom, a circus clown, were executed for even minor anti-Bolshevik acts, showing how widespread and arbitrary the use of terror became.
49
Q
How did Lenin’s perspective on the use of terror evolve, particularly towards the end of his life?
A
- Lenin initially justified the use of terror to maintain control and discipline in the Party and the state.
- Over time, particularly after 1921, Lenin showed an obsession with the use of terror, particularly regarding the execution of priests and other perceived enemies of the state.
- His personal interest in terror grew, especially as his health deteriorated, and this interest may reflect an increasingly authoritarian approach in his later years.
50
Q
How did internal debates within the Party influence Lenin’s policies?
A
- While Lenin’s control was highly centralized, internal debates within the Party played an important role in shaping policy decisions.
- Figures like Kamenev and Zinoviev opposed Lenin’s decision to launch the Revolution in 1917, and there was significant debate over the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 1918.
- The introduction of the New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1921 led to the emergence of right- and left-wing factions within the Party.
- Disputes also arose over the role of trade unions, with groups like Workers’ Opposition advocating for a stronger role, but they were crushed by Lenin.
51
Q
What role did Joseph Stalin play in the centralization of Party control after 1922?
A
- In 1922, Joseph Stalin was appointed General Secretary of the Party, a role that allowed him to oversee the Party apparatus and monitor potential opposition.
- Stalin’s position enabled him to consolidate power within the Party, and he used his role to appoint loyalists, helping to secure his future dominance in Soviet politics.
- Stalin’s control over the Party machinery made him a key figure in maintaining the centralized power that Lenin had built.
52
Q
How did Stalin rise to power in the Communist Party after Lenin’s death in 1924?
A
- After Lenin’s death, a collective leadership was initially formed, but rivalries within the Politburo caused instability.
- By 1928, Stalin emerged as the real power in the Party, largely due to his position as General Secretary, which allowed him to gather information, influence Party decisions, and manipulate Party structures.
- Stalin used his administrative role to eliminate opponents and build a personal dictatorship, continuing some of the trends established under Lenin.
53
Q
How did Stalin use the position of General Secretary to gain power over the Communist Party?
A
- Stalin became General Secretary in 1922, a position others had avoided, but which offered significant opportunities to gain control.
- As General Secretary, Stalin headed the Party Secretariat, which was responsible for the day-to-day running of the Party.
- He had access to personal files on Party members and could use this information to blackmail or manipulate rivals.
- Stalin also had the power to decide the agenda of Party meetings, limiting the scope of debates and decisions.
54
Q
What was the Lenin Enrolment, and how did Stalin use it to consolidate his power?
A
- The Lenin Enrolment (1923-1925) was a membership drive aimed at recruiting industrial workers into the Party, resulting in over 500,000 new members.
- Many of the new members were politically naive and loyal to Stalin, who had overseen the drive and understood their needs. These new recruits helped Stalin to outvote his rivals in Party Congresses, as they owed their positions to him.
55
Q
How did Stalin manipulate Party votes and Congress to eliminate his opponents in the Communist Party?
A
- Stalin used his control over Party administration to stack Congress with supporters who were loyal to him, often due to their dependence on Party membership and privileges.
- By controlling votes and the Party’s agenda, Stalin could easily outmaneuver his opponents and ensure that policies aligned with his interests.
- This made Party Congresses increasingly dominated by Stalin’s supporters, cementing his authority within the Party.
56
Q
How did Stalin handle internal Party rivalries after Lenin’s death?
A
- Stalin’s rivals in the Politburo included Leon Trotsky, Gregory Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev, Nikolai Bukharin, Mikhail Tomsky, and Alexei Rykov, each of whom had their own weaknesses.
- Trotsky was seen as arrogant and disconnected from the Party, Zinoviev and Kamenev lacked principle, and Bukharin had little political experience.
- Stalin used his position to appoint his own supporters to key positions, replacing rivals with loyalists such as Vyacheslav Molotov, Mikhail Kalinin, and Kliment Voroshilov.
57
Q
How did Stalin use patronage to solidify his power within the Communist Party?
A
- As General Secretary, Stalin had the power to appoint Party members to key positions. This allowed him to promote loyal supporters and remove rivals.
Stalin’s power grew as more - Party officials became loyal to him, and he placed people like Sergei Kirov in important positions, ensuring that they would support him in decision-making.
- Patronage became a crucial tool in Stalin’s consolidation of power.
58
Q
How did Stalin’s administrative skills contribute to his rise to power?
A
- Stalin’s thoroughness in administration was an asset that allowed him to manage the Party structure effectively.
- He was often referred to as “Comrade Card-Index” due to his meticulous attention to detail in organizing Party records and maintaining control over information.
- This made Stalin a reliable administrator and helped him gain influence within the Party, even though he was initially seen as lacking charisma and personality.
59
Q
Why did Stalin’s rivals in the Politburo fail to challenge his rise to power effectively?
A
- Stalin’s rivals lacked strong, unified support and suffered from personality flaws or political weaknesses.
- Trotsky was seen as arrogant and unwilling to engage in Party politics; Zinoviev and Kamenev were seen as ineffective and inconsistent; Bukharin lacked the experience needed to confront Stalin, while Rykov and Tomsky were weakened by their positions and personal issues.
- These weaknesses made it difficult for them to challenge Stalin’s growing power within the Party.
60
Q
How did loyalty play a key role in Stalin’s consolidation of power within the Communist Party?
A
- Loyalty to Stalin was crucial for those in the Party to retain their positions and privileges. By controlling patronage and the agenda, Stalin ensured that those who were loyal to him were promoted, while those who opposed him were sidelined or eliminated.
- The increasing number of loyalists in the Party helped Stalin to outvote and outmaneuver rivals, giving him control over Party decisions and centralizing power in his hands.
61
Q
How did Stalin eliminate political rivals within the Communist Party between 1928 and 1930, and how did this strengthen his position?
A
- By 1928, Stalin had exploited ideological divisions within the Party to neutralize opposition.
- The Left, led by Trotsky, Kamenev, and Zinoviev, advocated for ‘Permanent Revolution’ and a break from Lenin’s economic policies.
- The Right, led by Bukharin, Rykov, and Tomsky, supported the NEP and gradual industrialization.
- Stalin used these differences to manipulate rivals and eliminate the Left in 1926.
- By 1928, Stalin moved against the Right Opposition by undermining their support for the NEP.
- He secured loyalty from new Party members brought in under Lenin’s Enrolment, which helped him control votes.
- By 1930, most of the Right were removed from power, consolidating Stalin’s dominant position.
62
Q
What was the role of Stalin’s policy of ‘Socialism in One Country,’ and how did it impact his rivals, especially Bukharin?
A
- ‘Socialism in One Country’ aimed to modernize the Soviet Union through internal industrialization, focusing on self-reliance.
- This policy required abandoning the NEP, which Bukharin and the Right supported, fearing negative economic effects.
- Stalin attacked the NEP’s failure to prevent food shortages, undermining Bukharin’s stance.
- By 1929, Bukharin was forced to publicly admit errors, and his opposition contributed to his eventual downfall.
- Stalin portrayed Bukharin’s stance as hindering progress and used this as a reason for his removal.
63
Q
What were the purges of the 1930s, and how did Stalin use terror to consolidate his power?
A
- The purges were violent campaigns to eliminate perceived enemies within the Party and the population.
- Stalin used the NKVD (secret police) to conduct surveillance, arrest, and execute those deemed enemies.
- The Gulags were expanded to imprison millions of political prisoners, including Party members and ordinary citizens.
- Purges eliminated Stalin’s rivals, including Zinoviev, Kamenev, Bukharin, and Rykov, strengthening his control.
- The purges created an atmosphere of fear and intimidation, ensuring loyalty from Party members.
64
Q
What was the significance of the murder of Kirov in 1934, and how did it lead to the Great Purge?
A
- Sergei Kirov, a popular Party leader and rival to Stalin, was assassinated in December 1934.
- The official narrative blamed opposition groups for the murder, but some historians believe Stalin may have orchestrated it.
- The murder provided Stalin with a pretext to launch the Great Purge, eliminating Party members deemed to be threats.
- Following Kirov’s death, Stalin used the NKVD to arrest and execute numerous Party figures, including Zinoviev and Kamenev.
- The Great Purge expanded to target even the most loyal members of the Party.
65
Q
What were the “show trials,” and how did they serve Stalin’s purposes during the Great Purge?
A
- Show trials were public trials of prominent Party figures accused of treason or anti-Soviet activities.
- These trials were staged to produce confessions, often extracted through torture, and used as propaganda.
- The victims, like Zinoviev, Kamenev, and Bukharin, were accused of collaborating with Trotsky and foreign powers.
- The trials were filmed and broadcast to intimidate the public and Party members into submission.
- The Trials of the Sixteen (1936), the Seventeen (1937), and the Twenty-One (1938) were major events in this campaign.
- These trials reinforced Stalin’s narrative that the purges were necessary to protect the state.
66
Q
How did the purges affect the structure and functioning of the Communist Party during Stalin’s rule?
A
- The purges radically altered the structure of the Communist Party by removing many experienced officials.
- Stalin replaced these officials with loyalists, creating a compliant Party that would not challenge his authority.
- The NKVD took on an expanded role, overseeing surveillance, arrests, and executions, and running the Gulags.
- Local Party officials were purged to speed up the implementation of Stalin’s policies, such as the First Five-Year Plan and collectivization.
- By 1935, a significant portion of the Party had been removed, leaving only those who were loyal to Stalin.
67
Q
What were the “instruments of terror” used by Stalin, and how did they contribute to his control over the Soviet Union?
A
- The NKVD (secret police) was the primary instrument of terror, conducting surveillance, arrests, executions, and running the Gulags.
- The Party Secretariat helped identify enemies within the Party by gathering intelligence on members.
- The terror apparatus created an environment of fear, where anyone could be labeled an enemy of the people and punished accordingly.
- Stalin’s control over the NKVD and the Party ensured that any opposition, real or perceived, was quickly silenced.
- The use of terror solidified Stalin’s absolute power and deterred any challenges to his authority.
68
Q
How did the purges expand throughout the 1930s, and how did Stalin use them to solidify his power?
A
Purges in the Red Army (1937–1938):
- Stalin expanded purges to the armed forces, as the military’s power and influence grew.
Three out of five marshals were purged. - 14 out of 16 army commanders and 35,000 officers were either shot or imprisoned.
- The navy lost all of its admirals.
The military had criticized the negative impact of collectivization on the peasantry, a core group of soldiers. - Stalin feared the army could pose a threat to his power, especially as defense resources expanded.
- The purge aimed to cut the power of military leaders and enforce their loyalty.
69
Q
How did Stalin purge the secret police, and what role did it play in the wider purges?
A
- As Stalin intensified purges, the secret police’s workload and influence grew.
- To ensure the NKVD didn’t become a threat to him, Stalin purged its own members.
- Yagoda, head of the NKVD, was replaced by Nikolai Yezhov, known as the “bloody dwarf,” in 1936.
- Yezhov oversaw the most brutal phase of the purges, known as the Yezhovschina, purging over 3,000 NKVD personnel in the first six months.
- In 1938, Yezhov himself was purged and arrested, largely as a scapegoat for the excesses of the purges.
70
Q
How did local-level purges contribute to Stalin’s control over the Party?
A
Local-level purges and Stalin’s influence:
- Local Party branches were required to meet quotas of arrests.
- Stalin sometimes personally reviewed arrest lists, even adding names himself.
- Denunciations of Party members arose from personal grudges, a sense of justice, or opportunism.
- This created chaos within the Party, with members increasingly distrustful of one another.
- Despite the scale of the purges, there were factors beyond Stalin’s direct control, such as personal rivalries and local motivations.
71
Q
What role did the purges play in Stalin’s removal of political opponents?
A
- The purges were central to eliminating potential threats to Stalin’s position.
- Stalin’s agents eventually tracked down Trotsky, who was assassinated in Mexico in 1940.
- Stalin maintained power through a combination of fear and intimidation.
- Trotsky viewed Stalin’s actions as a betrayal of the Revolution, arguing Stalin’s dictatorship replaced the dictatorship of the proletariat.
- Stalin defended his use of terror, claiming it prevented a conservative backlash and preserved the revolutionary spirit.
- The purges not only safeguarded Stalin’s position but also ensured the Communist Party remained in control despite unpopular policies.
72
Q
How did Stalin’s use of terror differ from Lenin’s approach?
A
- Lenin’s terror was directed against class enemies, while Stalin’s terror was aimed at maintaining personal control and removing any potential rivals.
- Stalin’s terror focused on both the upper Party ranks and mass purges of lower-ranking members, creating a culture of fear.
- Stalin’s purges continued even after the Party’s dominance seemed secure, which indicates that Stalin was primarily securing his own personal position.
- Lenin had used terror to defend the revolution; Stalin’s terror preserved his power and solidified a personal dictatorship.
73
Q
How did Stalin consolidate control over the Communist Party by the early 1930s?
A
- In 1924, key figures like Bukharin, Trotsky, and Zinoviev were part of the Politburo.
- By 1930, Stalin was the only surviving original member of this group; the others had been removed.
- Stalin replaced his rivals with loyalists, such as Molotov, Voroshilov, and Kaganovich, ensuring the Politburo backed his policies.
- The use of terror against opponents demonstrated the consequences of defying Stalin.
- The purges sent a clear message to all Party members about the risks of opposing Stalin.
74
Q
How did Stalin’s methods lead to the collapse of political institutions within the Soviet Union?
A
The failure of Soviet political institutions:
- Political institutions became mere tools for rubber-stamping decisions made by Stalin, weakening their independence.
- By the mid-1930s, the Politburo met only about nine times a year, down from weekly meetings in the 1920s.
- Stalin increasingly exercised power through subgroups, bypassing official institutions and ensuring his control.
- Stalin attended key meetings, intimidating others by walking around the room, signaling that dissent would lead to execution.
- Pavel Rychagov, head of the Soviet Air Force, was executed for criticizing Soviet aircraft, illustrating Stalin’s control over military leadership.
75
Q
What was the significance of the Soviet Constitution of 1936?
A
The 1936 Soviet Constitution:
- The Constitution presented itself as highly democratic, claiming that every citizen had the right to vote.
- The Constitution promised civil rights such as freedom of the press, religion, and organization.
- A guarantee of employment was included, contrasting with the Great Depression in capitalist countries.
- Despite these claims, the Constitution was largely a facade, as Stalin’s control remained absolute.
- The kulaks, a class of richer peasants, and priests were excluded from voting, although Stalin argued they no longer existed as a class.
76
Q
What were kulaks, and how did Stalin view them?
A
Kulaks:
- Kulaks were peasants who owned their own land and were slightly wealthier than the typical laboring peasant.
- Stalin viewed them as enemies of the state and a barrier to collectivization.
- The kulaks were targeted during the collectivization process, with many being executed or deported to labor camps.
77
Q
What was the Soviet Constitution of 1936 intended to demonstrate?
A
- It was intended to show the USSR’s democratic credentials, especially to foreign governments like Britain and France.
- The goal was to convince these countries that the USSR was a democratic state and a valuable ally against Nazi Germany.
- It highlighted that the USSR had achieved democracy and had ended class conflicts.
78
Q
What was the reality of the Soviet Constitution of 1936?
A
- The Constitution was essentially a fraud.
While it listed civil rights, including the right to vote, it only applied to certain groups. - In practice, only Communist Party candidates could stand in elections.
- The government claimed that political parties were unnecessary because class conflicts no longer existed in the USSR.
- The Constitution was aimed at foreign governments to gain international support, but the reality of the Great Purge contradicted these claims.
79
Q
What were the personal limitations were there on Stalin’s power?
A
Personal Limits:
- Stalin could not personally control every aspect of the vast Soviet Union.
- The size and complexity of the country meant he had to focus on priorities rather than micromanage all details.
- His inability to oversee all events required him to rely on others for daily governance.
80
Q
What limitations from leadership were there on Stalin’s power?
A
- Limits from the Leadership:
After the Left and Right Opposition groups were removed, the remaining Politburo members were largely loyal, but some occasionally resisted. - In 1932, the Politburo refused to approve Stalin’s desire to execute Ryutin, who had denounced him.
- Stalin’s ambitious targets for the Second Five-Year Plan were considered too high, and members of the Politburo forced him to redraft it with lower targets to avoid chaos.
- Kirov, a popular leader in Leningrad, may have represented a moderate faction. He received more votes than Stalin in the 1934 Party Congress election.
- Stalin’s use of terror in the Politburo raised concerns, particularly from figures like Kuibyshev and Ordzhonikidze.
- Ordzhonikidze opposed the use of terror but was pressured by Stalin, leading to his official death from a “heart attack” in 1937, though suicide was suspected.
81
Q
What limitations from below were there on Stalin’s power?
A
- Party members pushed for rapid industrialization and policies to strengthen socialism, sometimes going further than Stalin intended.
- In 1930, Stalin chastised Party members who were overzealous in implementing collectivization, showing his difficulty controlling local enthusiasm.
- Purges at the local level were partly due to conflicts between Party members and regional authorities, which Stalin struggled to manage.
82
Q
What was the role of the Politburo in Stalin’s leadership?
A
- The Politburo was initially made up of significant Party members, such as Bukharin, Trotsky, and Stalin, but Stalin outlasted most of them by the late 1920s.
- By the 1930s, the Politburo became a group of Stalin’s loyalists, including Molotov, Voroshilov, and Kaganovich.
- While there were occasional expressions of dissent, such as Kirov’s popularity, the Politburo became a rubber-stamping body for Stalin’s policies.
- Stalin’s use of terror, including purges, sent clear signals to the Politburo about the consequences of opposing him.
83
Q
How did Stalin maintain control within the leadership?
A
- Stalin used terror and intimidation as central tactics.
He attended important meetings, often walking around the room to unnerve others. - This fear of execution for disagreeing with Stalin kept many members in line.
- Stalin used political maneuvering, such as promoting new members to the Politburo (e.g., Brezhnev and Ignatev) to consolidate his position.
- He also played factions against each other, ensuring that his subordinates remained loyal by keeping them divided.
84
Q
How did Stalin’s power evolve during and after the Second World War?
A
- During the war, Stalin’s authority grew, as Soviet victory was largely attributed to his firm leadership.
- Despite a brief breakdown after the German invasion in 1941, Stalin emerged as a hero.
His firm actions in the face of Nazi Germany’s threat elevated his status.
Post-War:
- After WWII, Stalin’s health declined, and he began to rely more on political scheming and terror to maintain control.
- Stalin’s power weakened internally as he struggled with infighting among his subordinates.
85
Q
What were some signs that Stalin’s power was weakening after 1945?
A
- Stalin’s health began to decline, making him less able to command his subordinates directly.
- He increasingly relied on intrigue and terror to maintain power.
- His internal struggles, such as with Beria and Malenkov, showed that Stalin’s authority was eroding.
- 1953 “Doctors’ Plot”: Stalin accused a group of doctors of trying to assassinate Soviet leaders, which may have been part of a larger purge plan aimed at removing rivals like Beria.
- Stalin’s decline was also marked by his failure to remove those loyal to Beria and Malenkov, indicating his decreasing ability to maintain control.
86
Q
How did Stalin’s leadership affect the Soviet political system?
A
- Stalin’s rule solidified the failure of political institutions to develop within the USSR.
- Party and State institutions became mere mechanisms to rubber-stamp Stalin’s policies, rather than functioning as independent bodies.
- The use of terror and the centralization of power led to the complete dominance of Stalin and the Communist Party over the state.
- Stalin’s methods were different from Lenin’s in that they served his personal dictatorship, not the Communist Party or the revolutionary cause.
87
Q
What was the “Doctors’ Plot,” and how did it relate to Stalin’s power struggles?
A
- The “Doctors’ Plot” involved accusations that a group of doctors had tried to assassinate Soviet leaders.
- It was likely part of Stalin’s broader plan to purge his rivals, especially Beria and other leadership figures.
- The plot may have been aimed at Soviet Jews, but it also represented Stalin’s efforts to eliminate rivals under the guise of national security.
- Stalin’s death in 1953 prevented the purge from happening.
88
Q
What were the trends in Stalin’s rule after WWII, especially regarding Party leadership?
A
- Stalin’s power was weakened after WWII, but he still managed to maintain control through terror and manipulation.
- The Politburo was expanded, with newcomers like Brezhnev and Ignatev, but Stalin’s inability to remove rivals like Beria showed his declining authority.
- Stalin’s health and political scheming became key to his rule, with internal divisions among the leadership becoming more apparent.
- Stalin’s declining ability to manage the leadership led to growing tensions, with potential rivals gaining influence.
89
Q
To what extent did the nature of Communist Party rule change after Stalin’s death up to 1985?
A
Post-Stalin Collective Leadership (1953):
- After Stalin’s death in 1953, a collective leadership formed within the Politburo, which included key figures such as Beria, Malenkov, and Khrushchev.
- Beria initially took a leading role and, as head of the secret police, moved quickly to reduce the use of terror.
Key reforms under Beria included:
- Amnesty issued on 27 March 1953, releasing over a million prisoners, mostly criminals on short sentences.
- Doctors’ Plot was revealed as a fabrication, and those wrongfully imprisoned by Stalin, including doctors, were released.
Beria’s Arrest and Execution (1953):
- His control of the secret police and potential threat to other members led to his arrest in June 1953. He was accused of being a British spy and executed, which was an illegal act but deemed necessary to restore socialist legality (the principle that actions of the Party must be lawful).
Khrushchev’s Rise to Power:
- After Beria’s removal, Khrushchev became First Secretary of the Communist Party in September 1953.
Khrushchev consolidated power by replacing key members of the Central Committee with his supporters, thus diminishing opposition. - By 1956, Khrushchev had outmaneuvered rivals such as Malenkov and Molotov.
He used his control over the Central Committee to dismiss those who opposed him, signaling the shift in.
90
Q
What was the significance of Khrushchev’s “Secret Speech” of 1956, and the beginning of de-Stalinisation?
A
The “Secret Speech” (1956):
- At the Twentieth Party Congress in 1956, Khrushchev gave his “Secret Speech”, attacking Stalin’s policies.
- He accused Stalin of cult of personality, tyranny, using unnecessary terror, and making economic mistakes.
- The speech shocked Party members, many of whom had risen to power under Stalin’s rule.
De-Stalinisation:
- Khrushchev’s speech marked the official beginning of de-Stalinisation, aimed at dismantling Stalin’s legacy and reintroducing a more Leninist approach.
- Reforms focused on improving governance and returning power to the Party rather than relying on individual authority.
Key Features of De-Stalinisation:
Socialist Legality:
- A move to reduce the arbitrary powers of the secret police and enforce legal governance.
Decentralisation of Power:
- Moves to decentralize decision-making by transferring powers from central ministries to regional councils, allowing for more local control.
Reforms in the Secret Police:
- Brought under Party control, reducing the use of the secret police for personal vendettas.
- Two million political prisoners were released from labor camps between 1953 and 1960, although the process was slow.
Impact on the Public:
- While fear of the secret police diminished, severe punishments still existed for corruption and criticism, with dissenters often subjected to internal exile or psychiatric hospitals.
91
Q
What was the 1957 crisis, and how did it affect Khrushchev’s leadership?
A
Khrushchev’s Decentralisation Crisis (1957):
- One of Khrushchev’s most contentious reforms was the decentralisation of power, which transferred responsibilities from central ministries to regional councils.
- This move threatened the power and privileges of local Party leaders and officials.
- The Anti-Party Group (led by Malenkov and Molotov) opposed this reform, arguing it would weaken central control.
- The group demanded Khrushchev’s resignation in
1957 Khrushchev’s Response:
- Khrushchev cleverly used the Central Committee to secure his position, arguing that only they, who had appointed him, could remove him.
- His Central Committee, packed with his supporters, rejected the call for his resignation, allowing him to remain in power.
- Unlike Stalin, Khrushchev did not have his rivals executed; instead, Molotov was made ambassador to Mongolia, and Malenkov was appointed head of the electricity sector.
92
Q
What were the key reforms during Khrushchev’s rule, and how did they affect the Party?
A
Khrushchev’s Reforms:
In the Twenty-Second Party Congress (1961), Khrushchev introduced further reforms aimed at de-Stalinisation:
- Stalin’s body was removed from Lenin’s Mausoleum in Red Square, symbolizing a break from Stalinism.
- A major purge of local Party secretaries was conducted to remove those still loyal to Stalin’s methods.
- Party reorganization in 1962 split the Party into agricultural and industrial departments, weakening the power of individual Party officials.
- Khrushchev introduced a three-year limit on how long Party officials could serve in one position, designed to make the Party more responsive.
- This reform angered many bureaucrats and Party officials who had developed power and privileges.
- The reforms, while intended to modernize the Party, led to growing resentment among the Party elite.
93
Q
What led to the downfall of Khrushchev in 1964?
A
Reasons for Khrushchev’s Decline:
Economic Failures:
- Khrushchev faced criticism for his agricultural policies, which culminated in a disastrous harvest in 1963.
- The failure to address economic needs damaged his credibility.
Erratic Behavior:
- Khrushchev’s leadership was often seen as unpredictable and erratic. His mood swings and decisions, like banging his shoe at the United Nations in 1960, caused unease among Party officials.
Cuban Missile Crisis:
- The Cuban Missile Crisis (1962), where Khrushchev backed down in the face of US pressure, was seen as a humiliating failure by the Soviet military, further undermining his standing.
The 1964 Party Decision:
- In 1964, the Central Committee removed Khrushchev from his positions as Prime Minister and First Secretary, primarily due to discontent within the Party over his reforms and leadership style.
- His downfall was due to growing frustration with his reforms, unpredictability, and the economic problems under his rule.
Significance of Khrushchev’s Removal:
- Khrushchev’s ousting showed that a Party leader could be removed without resorting to violence, a significant shift from Stalin’s era.
- Khrushchev’s downfall highlighted the growing bureaucratic resistance to reforms, and perhaps paradoxically, his ability to be dismissed without violence marked his most significant achievement.
94
Q
How did the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) impact Khrushchev’s downfall?
A
Background to the Crisis:
- In 1959, Fidel Castro led a Communist revolution in Cuba, which soon became an ally of the Soviet Union.
- By 1962, Khrushchev secretly began to deploy nuclear missiles in Cuba, increasing tensions with the US.
The US Response:
- The US discovered the Soviet missiles in Cuba and responded by imposing a naval quarantine, preventing Soviet ships from delivering additional missiles.
Khrushchev’s Backdown:
- Soviet ships en route to Cuba were turned back, and Khrushchev ultimately agreed to remove the missiles from Cuba to avoid a direct military confrontation.
Impact on Khrushchev’s Leadership:
- The military viewed Khrushchev’s backdown as a humiliating defeat, damaging his authority and credibility.
- The Cuban Missile Crisis became a key factor in the decision to remove Khrushchev from power in 1964.
95
Q
How did Leonid Brezhnev come to power, and what was his initial approach?
A
Brezhnev replaced Khrushchev as General Secretary in 1964. He was considered a ‘safe pair of hands,’ representing the Party reasserting its control over leadership. Initially, he was part of a collective leadership, but, like Khrushchev before him, he gradually consolidated his power by sidelining rivals.
96
Q
How did Brezhnev avoid Khrushchev’s mistakes?
A
- He knew that Khrushchev had been removed for losing the trust of his colleagues, so he carefully maintained Party unity. Instead of openly eliminating opponents, he strategically reassigned them:
- Nikolai Podgorny was given the largely ceremonial role of Head of State.
- Alexander Shelepin was given tasks related to foreign affairs.
97
Q
What were Brezhnev’s personal characteristics, and how did they impact his leadership?
A
- Brezhnev was often seen as mediocre but not entirely talentless. His affable personality helped him maintain power without causing conflict. He was primarily an ‘organization man’ who used his skills at placating competing Party leaders to keep the Politburo united.
98
Q
What actions did Brezhnev take to reverse Khrushchev’s de-Stalinization policies?
A
- He quickly abolished many of Khrushchev’s reforms, which were dismissed as ‘hare-brained schemes.’
Key measures included:
- Reinstating stability by ensuring Party officials remained in their positions for long periods.
- Ending subjectivism, meaning decisions were no longer made by the leader alone but required Party consultation.
- Dropping the division of the Party into agricultural and industrial sections.
Restoring the name of the Politburo in 1966 (after Khrushchev had changed it to the Presidium).
99
Q
How did Brezhnev ensure political decision-making remained under Party control?
A
- He consulted colleagues regularly and relied on a core group within the Politburo to discuss major issues. He also controlled the flow of information, ensuring Politburo members received the ‘right’ information to smooth out divisions.
100
Q
What were the key provisions of the 1977 Soviet Constitution, and how did it impact governance?
A
The Soviet Constitution of 1977:
- Enshrined the right of citizens to criticize incompetent Party secretaries.
- Ensured that posts in both Party and government were filled by appointment rather than genuine election.
- Article 6 asserted the primacy of the Communist Party, describing the system as ‘mature socialism.’
101
Q
What was Brezhnev’s principle of ‘trust in cadres,’ and what impact did it have?
A
- ‘Trust in cadres’ referred to Brezhnev’s policy of letting Party officials govern without interference.
As a result:
- Limits on tenure were removed, allowing officials to remain in power for long, unbroken tenures.
- The Party’s membership grew from 6.9 million in 1953 to 17 million by 1980, widening mass political participation.
- The Party became the main instrument of upward mobility, ensuring officials’ loyalty but also leading to stagnation.
102
Q
How did Brezhnev’s leadership style contrast with Stalin’s in terms of repression?
A
- While Brezhnev reversed de-Stalinization’s most radical elements, he did not restore Stalinist terror. Instead, he chose to ignore Stalin’s legacy in the name of stability. The 1979 centenary of Stalin’s birth was acknowledged but with limited recognition.
103
Q
Why was the 1966 Twenty-Third Party Congress called ‘the congress of silences’?
A
- Because it involved very little discussion or debate.
The only notable change was renaming:
- The Presidium back to the Politburo.
- The First Secretary back to the General Secretary.
- This cautious and conservative approach defined Brezhnev’s era.
104
Q
How did Brezhnev indulge in the trappings of power?
A
Brezhnev awarded himself numerous medals for questionable achievements, including:
- The Lenin Peace Prize
- The Lenin Prize for Literature
- He also enjoyed luxuries such as hunting and collecting Western limousines. His mother famously joked: “What will you do if the Bolsheviks return to power?”
105
Q
How did corruption flourish under Brezhnev?
A
- The long tenure system and nepotism led to widespread corruption, particularly in remote parts of the USSR.
An example was:
- The ‘cotton affair’, where millions of roubles were fraudulently claimed for non-existent cotton.
106
Q
How did the Party leadership evolve into an oligarchy under Brezhnev?
A
- The leadership became dominated by a small elite governing in their own interests. Brezhnev ensured the promotion of his old colleagues, forming the ‘Dnepropetrovsk Mafia’,
which included:
- Andrei Kirilenko – Key Secretariat role, elected to the Politburo in 1962.
- Nikolai Shchelokov – Promoted in 1966 to Soviet Minister of Internal Affairs.
- Konstantin Chernenko – Became a Politburo candidate in 1977 and a full member in 1978.
107
Q
How did the Soviet system under Brezhnev become resistant to change?
A
- Before the 1970s, promotions involved relocating officials to different regions to gain experience.
Under Brezhnev:
- Promotions were made from within local Party ranks, reducing innovation.
- Nepotism became widespread as officials placed family members in key positions.
- By the early 1980s, the USSR was seen as a system grinding to a halt, mirroring Brezhnev’s own decline.
108
Q
What happened to Soviet leadership after Brezhnev’s death in 1982?
A
- Yuri Andropov succeeded him and attempted to fight corruption but was too ill to implement reforms.
- After mid-1983, Andropov was dependent on kidney dialysis and died in February 1984.
- Andropov recommended Mikhail Gorbachev as his successor, but the Politburo chose the dying Konstantin Chernenko to preserve the status quo.
- Chernenko was in his mid-70s and suffering from emphysema, making no changes before dying in March 1985.
