Communist Government, 1917-85

Question 1

What were Marx’s 2 ideas on the State and Revolution which Lenin took seriously? (A)

Answer 1

Revolutionary govt = more democratic than capitalist govts But, A ‘dictatorship of the proletariat’ necessary to ruthlessly destroy the power of the capitalists

Question 2

What was the Sovnarkom, and name members of it in the initial stages of the Revolution? (A)

Answer 2

Essentially new Russian Cabinet, made up of 13 People’s Commissars (revolutionaries who worked with Lenin): - Lenin, Chairman - Trotsky - Head of People’s Commissariat of Foreign Affairs - Stalin - Head of People’s Commissariat of Nationality Affairs

Question 3

What were Lenin’s 1st series of decrees, and how did they help him establish control? (A) (Include dates)

Answer 3

Decree on Land (Oct 1917) - gave peasants right to seize land from nobility + church Decree of Peace (Oct 1917) - committed the govt to seek peace Workers’ Decrees (Nov 1917) - est. 8-hour max working day + minimum wage Decree of Workers’ Control (April 1918) - allowed workers to elect committees to run factories Helped - gained popular support for regime from workers, peasants, soldiers + ending involvement in WW1 = breathing space for new regime to rebuild economy and construct new govt

Question 4

Why was Lenin’s initial Sovnarkom hold very little power in the first few months? (A)

Answer 4

Revolution only occurred in Petrograd, so lacked control of other major cities/large rural areas Senior figures of former govt rejected Bolshevik authority e.g. Russian State Bank and State Treasury went on strike immediately after Rev = govt therefore lacked necessary funds to operate Sovnarkom = disorganised e.g. Stalin’s Commissariat of Nationality Affairs = simply a desk in corner of room at Smolny Institute

Question 5

How could it be argued that Russia was quite democratic in 1918? (A)

Answer 5

Broad-based support: Decrees = popular + genuinely reflect what the majority (w,p,s) wanted Not yet single-party state, Constitution of 1918, Sovnarkom responsible to Congress of Soviets - containing reps from many parties even B rival, Mensheviks + SRs (some even having junior govt rules) Initial belief in coalition govt, Zinoviev + Kamenev attempted to persuade Lenin to form one - but failed = resigned, by Nov - B dominated Support for B dominated govt by workers in Petrograd e.g. Petrograd Trades Union Council who met on 31 Oct - expressed its support of decrees

Question 6

Before the Civil War, how did Russia become less democratic and therefore Bolshevik power be consolidated? (A)

Answer 6

Refused to recognise Nov 1917 nationwide election which created a Constituent Assembly - met Jan 1918, Lenin closed it by force after 1 day - stating it threatened power of soviets Disregarded Soviets - e.g. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk March 1918, unpopular as it gave large proportion of Russian territory to central powers = lost elections in April + May 1918 = refused results (saying it was unfair) Expelled Mensheviks + SRs from Soviets Official Party theorist, Nikolai Bukharin, argued ‘formal democracy’ had to be abandoned to win civil war

Question 7

How did Lenin describe the revolutionary government’s opposition in the Civil War? ( + give dates of war) (A)

Answer 7

1918-21 Communist Reds (B) vs reactionary Whites However, far more complicated e.g. SRs + Menshaviks formed own forces and governments

Question 8

As a result of the Civil War, in what 2 ways did the government change? (A)

Answer 8

• ^ centralised - Communist Party became ^ powerful

Question 9

How did Lenin centralise power in order to win the war, but simultaneously taking power from w,p,s they claimed to represent? (A)

Answer 9

Centralise control of economy via War Communism Relied on political centralisation, working through loyal Party nomenklautra instead of democratic soviets + terror Trotsky - made Red Army more authoritarian, introducing conscription, harsh punishments + relied on former Tsarist generals

Question 10

How did a ‘party-state’ emerge during the civil war, therefore consolidating Communist Party power even more so? (A)

Answer 10

Govt had to act quickly, so Lenin preferred the 5-7 member Politburo to Sovnarkom + contained most loyal supporters e.g. Stalin, Trotsky - from 1920, Sovnarkom simply rubber stamped policies, with Politburo = effectively govt = new govt based on Party rather than soviets Party dominance at local level - Senior communists bypassed Soviets (still had Mensheviks + SRs) for nomenklautra - party members trusted to implement govt policy without question By 1921, as Communist Party dominance ^, exclusion of other parties + Soviets ^ = ‘party-state’

Question 11

What was the role of the Cheka during the Civil War (Red Terror)? (A) (+ when was it founded)

Answer 11

Dec 1917 - tasked to defend revolution, tasked to root out anyone deemed to be a threat e.g. raiding anarchist organisations, closing down opposition papers + expelling Mensheviks + SRs from Soviets Lenin stated that terror was necessary to protect the new govt

Question 12

What were the threats posed to the government after the Civil War in 1921? (A)

Answer 12

Jan 1921, force of 50,000 anti-communists in Tambov, revolted due to grain requisitioning + Cheka brutality, by March = attacks on govt grain stores along Volga River Suppression of strikes in Petrograd 1921 = Kronstadt naval base to rebel - demanding immediate free and fair elections, restoration of free speech and press, and etc. ‘Soviets without Communists’ Some Communists supported such, seeing Lenin as having gone too far

Question 13

What was the response of Lenin’s government to the threats it faced in 1921? (A)

Answer 13

March - Red Army crushed Kronstadt uprising May - suppressed rebellion via deporting 100,000 to labour camps + attack villages with poison gas

Question 14

How did Lenin establish a One-Party State after the Civil War? (A)

Answer 14

Feb 1921 - Cheka ordered to destroy all opposition parties, e.g. Menshevik Leader Fyodor Dan was sent to Butyrka Prison at end of Feb By 1922, all organised opposition were either imprisoned, exiled, or executed

Question 15

What were the effects of the 1921 Party Congress reforms in stabilising and consolidating Communist Party power? (A)

Answer 15

Introduced NEP following the crisis of 1921, w,p,s clearly unhappy ‘On Party Unity’ - banned factions within Party, would be expelled e.g. banned factions like the Democratic Centralists, wanted to make party more democratic = Strengthened Lenin’s position within party, making opposition to his policies more difficult to organise

Question 16

How did Stalin transform a limited, yet still pluralistic party by 1928? (B)

Answer 16

• Est. ideological orthodoxy - Destroyed authority of other main contenders - Changed the nature of Party membership - Created the patronage system

Question 17

What did the contenders have to do in order to become leader of the USSR after Lenin’s death in 1928? (B)

Answer 17

Lenin led due to having respect of those around him So contenders had to: - Persuade the party that they were true Leninists - Had to achieve support within party, with support in the Central Committee necessary as the Politburo (the govt) was selected by it Support within party, not within the Soviet Union = not democratic

Question 18

Other than Stalin, who were the 3 other contenders for leading the government? (B)

Answer 18

Zinoviev - 1923-25 led Triumvirate with Stalin + Kamenev (forming majority) = keep Trotsky out of power + emphasised differences of Leninism + Trotskyism so he would be unable to lead Bukharin - thought to be too young and inexperienced, 1925-28 formed Duumvirate with Stalin, against United Opposition of Z,K,T (majority due to junior ministers supporting Bukharin) Trotsky - lost position in Politburo 1927, in fact he was once a Menshevik, so despite being a hero of the revolution, not true Leninist

Question 19

In order to win the leadership struggle, Stalin had to prove he was a true Leninist, therefore changing the nature of the party via est. a new ideological orthodoxy - by 1928, what were the 2 ideas that Stalin advocated? (B)

Answer 19

Socialism in 1 country - from 1924, Bukharin + Stalin advocated that Soviet Union could construct socialism, and that this was the correct Leninist idea - so Z,K,T were Trotskyites, not Leninists, for wanting to wait for global revolution to construct socialism Collectivisation and Industrialisation - 1928, Stalin argued that Lenin adopted NEP out of pragmatism, now that growth slowed, must adopt radical policy of forcing peasants to work on state-owned farms, with profits used to industrialise Union, accused Bukharin of no longer being true Leninist for wanting to continue NEP

Question 20

What was the effect of Stalin establishing an ideological orthodoxy? (B)

Answer 20

While Lenin willingly worked with those who disagreed with him, Stalin argued that Trotskyites and Bukharin’s followers were a threat - therefore arrested Z,K,T - with T expelled from Union Meant that there would be no significant opposition to Stalin’s governance, therefore limiting progress

Question 21

How was authority at the top of the party changed from Lenin to Stalin? (B) ( + How did he accomplish this?)

Answer 21

Stalin took the authority that was dispersed among a large number of people and focused it onto himself, therefore gaining a near monopoly of authority Did this via: - est new ideological orthodoxy, branding opponents as enemies of Leninism - demanded Z,K,T apologise to Party for errors when lost votes at Party Congress - accused B,Z,K of forming a faction, crimes which Lenin banned in 1921

Question 22

How did Party Membership change under Stalin, and how was it used to his advantage? (B)

Answer 22

1924, introduced Lenin Enrolment, from May 1924 128,000 people joined - arguing more working class needed. Interested simply in well paid jobs, supported Stalin as he could promote them - by 1928 recruits more interested in advancing their careers than the goals of the revolution - Patronage led to privileged ‘nomenklautra’ and therefore powerful supporters of Stalin

Question 23

How did Stalin use patronage to secure his position? (B)

Answer 23

From 1923, Stalin issued ‘approved list’ - meaning local parties encouraged to send delegates from list to Party Congress - 1923 1/3 of delegates = from list, ^ over time = greater control over congress = weakened Party Democracy (democratic centralism) Stalin’s position as General Sec, head of Central Control Commission, and the Rabkrin allowed him to win support: - Could give well-paid/powerful jobs to lower officials - Power to investigate + even sack party members and govt officials = allow him count on loyalty of Party members who wanted to retain their positions

Question 24

In the 1930s, what was Stalin concerned with and what was his response? (Include Dates) (B)

Answer 24

• His supporters may be prepared to challenge his authority - Old rivals could conspire against him and overthrow him Launched Great Terror/Purge - reached height 1935-38 - responsible for deaths of approx. 10 million (10% of population) - campaign of arrests, torture, mass imprisonments and executions

Question 25

Give 3 reasons why Stalin launched the Great Terror, and what was the initiating cause? (B)

Answer 25

OPPOSITION:

By 1932, opposition via a group of moderates associated with Sergei Kirov (head of Party in Leningrad) - able to force policy change early 1930s e.g. 1933 Kirov + moderates argued for more realistic targets for 2nd FYP + greater emphasis on producing consumer goods - Kirov authority threaten Stalin

ECONOMIC PROBLEMS:

Senior govt figures aware of issues of Stalin’s, which threatened his authority + accusing workers/managers of being ‘saboteurs’/’wreckers’ = shift blame instead of accepting responsibility + sent to gulag = ‘army of slave labour’ - used to build factories and mine resources

THE CONGRESS OF VICTORS:

Feb 1934, Stalin came 2nd to Kirov in a vote at end electing Central committee (1225-927) - vote demonstrated Stalin had a rival in the Communist Party

Pretext = Kirov’s murder Dec 1934 - no conclusive proof = Stalin, allowed him to claim dangerous conspiracy aiming to overthrow govt = gave Staline reason to launch mass campaign to hunt down his enemies

Question 26

When and what was the most public aspect of the Great Terror? (B)

Give 3 examples

Answer 26

The Show trials - finally removing Stalin’s rivals

• Trial of the 16, 1936 = execution of Z,K + 14 supporters
• Trial of the 17, 1937 = execution and imprisonment of 17 former T supporters
• Trial of the 21, 1938 = execution of B + many close supporters

Show Trials ensured Stalin was seen as the only true Leninist, defendants made their ideology + reputation ruined via admitting to working with capitalist nations against USSR, usually under torture

Only a small part of the terror, but all aspects of Party + Govt affected - e.g. 90% affected = men 30-45 who held senior positions in Party or important economic role

Question 27

Give examples of Secret Trials that took place during the Great Terror, and possible reasons for it: (B)

Answer 27

1937 - 8 senior generals tried + executed for plotting to overthrow govt (had worked with Trotsky when he was head of army)

1937 - all admirals executed, accused of Treason

Around 37,000 officers purged altogether, 1939-40, many purged due to failure of the Winter War = humiliation

Question 28

What were the consequences of the Great Terror? (B)

(4 points)

Answer 28

ELIMINATED GENERATION OF COMMUNISTS:

Removed all party members who had worked with Lenin, ensuring that none could claim authority that was not independent of Stalin

EMERGENCE OF NEW GENERATION:

Led to new generation of Communist Party leaders who owed their positions, and consequently their loyalty, to Stalin

ESTABLISHED PRINCIPLE OF TERROR:

The principle that Stalin had the right to use terror against anyone who was deemed to be disloyal

NKVD BECAME A POWERFUL ORGANISATION:

Stalin’s secret police, gained power - consequently Lavrentiy Beria, Stalin’s NKVD chief since 1938 = also became a powerful figure in govt

Question 29

Why was there confusion over the relationship between the party and state, and how did Stalin use it to his advantage? (B)

Answer 29

Lenin, whilst creating both the Communist Party and Soviet State, failed to define the relationship. 1917 - est. state based on soviets, but non-Communist parties were outlawed, meaning that the Party became those most powerful organisation, not the state

Stalin changed the relationship 1928-53, using vagueness of relationship to his advantage throughout 1940s + 50s e.g. WW2, Competition, Post-war terror, etc.

Question 30

How did the relationship between the party and state change in WW2, and how did it emphasise Stalin’s power? (B)

Answer 30

1928 - most powerful man in Communist Party, then 1941 - Chair of Sovnarkom - most senior govt position

To ensure better coordination in govt, after purges of army + govt in the 1930s, became Chair of the Council of Ministers (Sov) to promote effective govt in war in following ways:

• Ended mass terror, believing they should work without threat of violence to = smooth govt, can be shot afterwards
• Allowed state power to grow, shift from party to state, ministers began to make important decisions rather than party bosses
• Change composition of Politburo - Ministers joined Politburo, members of Politburo given important ministerial jobs = Politburo ^ co-ordinated state activity as well as party activity
• Created GKO, responsible for economic co-ordination + military production + defence during the war

Question 31

How did Stalin use competition in the party-state relationship after the war to his advantage? (B) (2 points)

Answer 31

1) Appoint rival personnel to key positions in Party + state e.g. placed Andrei Zhdanov, key rival of Beria, in charge of Party supervision of Beria’s political police
- encouraging competition <-> party + state officials meant senior officials in govt competed with each other and not Stalin
2) Stalin shifted power from Party to state then back again - 1938 Politburo = most senior govt committee - 1942, GKO most powerful, the after War = Council of Ministers became more powerful
- by shifting centre of power within govt, ensured none of these senior committees grew to rival him

Question 32

What 2 ways did Stalin use post-war terror in order to hold onto power? (B)

Answer 32

THE LENINGRAD AFFAIR, 1949:

100 officials shot, 2000 arrested + dismissed, due to concerns that the party in Leningrad was developing some form of independence

• however related also to future replacement of Stalin, Beria encouraging it due to his rival, and also key contender to replace Stalin, was head of the party + led to Zhdanov’s execution 1949

TESTING LOYALTY:

Did this via sacking or arresting wives + daughters of senior figures e.g. 1948 Stalin demanded Politburo expel Vyacheslav Molotov’s (Politburo member since 1926 + Minister of Foreign Affairs since 1939) wife - Molotov abstained, then later apologised for disloyalty

1949 - had Molotov’s wife arrested + imprisoned, learning from his mistake, made no effort to stop the arrest of end the imprisonment

Question 33

Overall, how did Stalin run and maintain his power, and what issues did this lead to after his death in 1953? (B)

Answer 33

Established a single ideological orthodoxy

Purged many of his close allies from 1928, believing loyalty through fear was far more viable = widespread public debate + organised opposition in party disappeared

Result = Stalin ruled, not the Party or the State (they had less authority) - meant when Stalin died, his heirs had to revitalise party + state in order to create effective government

Question 34

What were the aims of Khrushchev’s reforms and de-Stalinisation?

What held him back and how did it contribute to his fall in 1964? (C)

Answer 34

Wanted to regenerate the Soviet Union within the framework of single-party state and central economic planning laid out by Lenin and Stalin - he believed in revolutionary goals of Lenin of land of plenty, no poverty, etc.

Wanted to create humane form of socialism, free of arbitrary terror - rejecting the Stalinist idea of terror being central to revolutionary transformation

However - Khrushchev lacked coherent planning, making bold plans without thinking them through, acting on impulse + backtracked frequently after major announcements - showed how he lacked absolute authority in comparison to Lenin + Stalin

Therefore, his impulsiveness, inconsistency + relative weakness = fall 1964

Question 36

When was Andropov and Chernenko leader of the Soviet Union?

Answer 36

Andropov - Nov 1982 - Feb 1984

Chernenko, Feb 1984 - March 1985

Question 37

In what ways did Andropov and Chernenko attempt to revive the Soviet System, how did this fail? (C) 1982 - 1985

Answer 37

Andr - believed system stable, need minor reform - revive via ^ discipline:

Abandon ‘stability of cadres’, replaced 1/4 officials

Minor economic reforms focused on labour discipline

Anti-corruption campaign - e.g. Minister of Interior Nikolai Shchelokov, prosecuted - this removed many old + corrupt officials = young generation rise

Cher - ill-health prevented progress, support Br form of governance

Neither - prepared to address fundamental issues of the Soviet Union

Question 38

In what ways did Brezhnev promote a more stable approach to governance? (C) 1964-82

Answer 38

Focus on Stability and Restoration, that by the 1970s the Union had achieved the revolutionary transformation - defend status quo, not force of revolutionary change

Restoration (Reverse Khr) - 1964-70 Br-Kosygin Pact - limit patronage, ensure top jobs not occupied by same (Kosy - Premier, Br - General Sec), divide posts

Party Restoration (Reverse Khr) - reinstated centralisation Khr tried to devole, re-established all-union ministries Khr abolished + ended split in party <-> agri and ind. - Article 6 1977 ‘Br Constitution’ - recognised party’s leading role, therefore superiority, in society

Stability - ‘Stability of Cadres’ - gain support from govt off due to job security - abolish Khr’s unpopular 1961 policy of limited terms - discouraged promotions + demotions to prevent issues of patronage (Kos-Br)

Question 39

How did Brezhnev’s stable approach to governance lead to stagnation of the Soviet Political System? (C)

2 points

Answer 39

‘Stability of Cadres’ = ‘static govt’ + gerontocracy (rule of old) e.g. Politburo average age = 58 in 1968, 1982 - 75

Promotions - 1966-71, 80-90% of Central Committee retained positions following congresses

= Less Effective govt - limited opportunities, middle-rank stuck with no prospect of promotion = system provide no incentives to work hard + generation gap, officials no longer knew the people they governed + ^ ill, unable to perform

Corruption - lack of demotions/promotions = context for huge corruption - would not be disciplined e.g. Yury Sokolov, director of major Moscow food store, took bribes for passing on luxury food - knew would not gain more via hard work

Question 40

In what ways did successive leaders not match Stalin’s powerful authority as the leader of the Soviet Union? (C) - specify Khr and Br (mention some counter-points)

3 points

Answer 40

They lacked personal power which Stalin had, many of his successors relied on separate powerbases e.g. Beria with the MVD, Khr with the Party - however like Stalin they had support, e.g. Khr replaced S’s supporters 1953-56 as Sec of CC (44% CC replaced) + Br ‘stability of cadres’

Due to cult of personality - Stalin was much more loved than Khr, Br - Khr was a Leninist and opposed cults (attacked it in his 1956 speech at 20th Party Congress), Br failed to use the tactics = humourous - so lacked support in public view

Inability to Remove Opposition (Khr Mainly) - under S, departments and powerful bodies rivalled one another via S’s tactics - but not with Khr - June 1957, Anti-Party group (led by Malenkov due to issues with de-stalinisation) tried to remove him, but able to be saved via support in CC - consolidated position in 1958 however showed:

Senior Communists no longer use political terror

Power of Party Leader depended on support of CC - something that would not happen under Stalin

Question 41

What short-term issues had Stalin left for his heirs to try and deal with? (C)

3 points

Answer 41

Power Vacuum - Stalin’s power = personnal, so on his death 1953, neither State nor Party had more power - so his heirs had to deal - Khr, Malenkov, Beria - reformed MVD which controlled through terror - e.g. MVD lost a great deal of economic power, no longer permitted to use Gulag Labour to build factories or mine resources

Party Full of Stalinist Supporters, but no Stalin - many who submitted loyalty to Stalin now problematic - to boost Khr’s support in CC, replaced with his 1953-56 (44% replaced)

Unstable Orthodoxy - Under Stalin, necessary + popular reform e.g. agriculture, arts, etc. not pursued - Khr’s de-stalinisation policy = unstable govt, shown by revised ‘Secret Speech’ June 1956 - New Year’s Eve Speech - all communists were “Stalinists”

Question 42

How did Stalin’s heirs end the use of Terror? (C)

3 Points

Answer 42

Beria’s Reforms - Following uprisings in Steplag, Kolyama, and to calm fears of rivals - limited MVD power e.g. economic + amnesty March + April 1953 for political prisoners

De-Stalinisation - Following 1956 speech, process of releasing political prisoners escalated, June 1956 - 51,439 prisoners released, by 1961, 1/2 executed were rehabilitated.

Khr’s Biggest Political Achievement - ended terror against party, enemies sacked, not tortured or killed. - 1964, allowed pension to retire,

Question 43

What were the Long-term Issues which Stalin had left for his heirs to deal with? (C)

Answer 43

Inhumane Communism - While terror had been ended after the death of Beria 1953, also had the issue of what Stalin had done - meant during de-Stalinisation, people questioned the legitimacy of the party + Secret Speech exposed crimes. Despite Khr attempting to resolve issue, it threatened to destabilise the govt

Leaked information about Stalin’s crimes = student demonstration calling for democracy at Moscow State University 1957 = had to est. Special Commission, to deal with anti-communist threats

INHUMANE - meant the party could not openly change key aspects due to revealing Stalin’s actions = lose legitimacy = destabilise

Question 44

How did Khrushchev’s Political Reforms lead to destabilisation and his ultimate removal in 1964? (C)

Answer 44

De-Stalinisation: Led to almost loss of control in Hungary 1956, and student protests in 1957, + it was never completed, allowed Br to utilise it to his advantage, govt never publicly decry Stalin

Democratisation + Decentralisation: 1957 political reforms - Party began to dislike Khr’s policies = destabilising - e.g. fixed terms for senior positions (2/3 regional secretaries + Presidium replaced 1957-61

-Democratisation - expanded party from 6.9 million 1954 to 11million 1964 = more democratic due to 60% being w & p

• Decentralisation - abolish central ministries, est. 105 economic counciles (devolved power) - moved Ministry of Agriculture away from Moscow ‘be closer to the fields’

Final Reforms: Twenty-Second Party Congress 1961 - introduced fixed terms for all jobs in party, 16-year term for CC

1962 - reforms split party 1/2, agri-ind (even the CC was split along these lines)

Question 45

In summary, why did Khrushchev fall in 1964? (C)

3 points

Answer 45

Political Reforms = discontent in party

Economic Policies = promised much, failed to deliver

Foreign Policy - rash and dangerous (Berlin Wall, Cuban Missile Crisis 1962)