Communication Flashcards
what role does perception play in communication and communication problems.
Perception is the process by which people attend to, organize, interpret, and retain information from their environments. Perception is not a straightforward process, however. Because of perceptual filters, such as selective perception and closure, people exposed to the same information stimuli often end up with very different perceptions and understandings. Perception-based differences can also lead to differences in the attributions (internal or external) that managers and workers make when explaining workplace behavior. In general, workers are more likely to explain behavior from a defensive bias, in which they attribute problems to external causes (i.e., the situation). Managers, on the other hand, tend to commit the fundamental attribution error, attributing problems to internal causes (i.e., the worker associated with a mistake or error). Consequently, when things go wrong, it’s common for managers to blame workers and for workers to blame the situation or context in which they do their jobs. Finally, this problem is compounded by a self-serving bias that leads people to attribute successes to internal causes and failures to external causes. So, when workers receive negative feedback from managers, they may become defensive and emotional and not hear what their managers have to say. In short, perceptions and attributions represent a significant challenge to effective communication and understanding in organizations.
List and briefly define the four parts of the perception process.
Perception is the process by which individuals attend to, organize, interpret, and retain information from their environments. Attention is the process of noticing or becoming aware of particular stimuli. Organization is the process of incorporating new information (from the stimuli that you notice) into your existing knowledge. Interpretation is the process of attaching meaning to new knowledge. Finally, retention is the process of remembering interpreted information.
Briefly define perceptual filters. How do perceptual filters impact the perception process?
Perceptual filters are the personality-, psychology-, or experience-based differences that influence people to ignore or pay attention to particular stimuli. Perceptual filters affect each part of the perception process, attention, organization, interpretation, and retention, by affecting which stimuli are attended to, how that information is incorporated into our existing knowledge (as well as the meaning attached to it), and what we’re likely to remember. Because of filtering, people exposed to the same information will often disagree about what they saw or heard.
Define attribution theory. Within your definition, be sure to define the two types of attributions that people typically make.
Attribution theory says that we all have a basic need to understand and explain the causes of other people’s behavior. In other words, we need to know why people do what they do. According to attribution theory, we use two general reasons or attributions to explain people’s behavior: an internal attribution (in which behavior is thought to be voluntary or under the control of the individual), and an external attribution (in which behavior is thought to be involuntary and outside of the control of the
individual).
What is the conduit metaphor? What is its significance to managers?
The conduit metaphor refers to the mistaken assumption that senders can pipe their intended messages directly into the heads of receivers with perfect clarity and without noise or perceptual filters interfering with the receivers’ understanding of the message. However, this just isn’t possible because, depending on how they’re used, words and symbols typically have multiple meanings. Thus, the conduit metaphor causes problems in communication by making managers too complacent and
confident in their ability to easily and accurately transfer messages to receivers. Managers who want to be effective communicators need to (1) carefully choose words and symbols that will help receivers derive the intended meaning of a message, and (2) be aware of and carefully manage all of the steps of the communication process.
Briefly identify the difference between the formal and informal communication channels in an organization.
There are two general types of communication channels in organizations: formal and informal. The formal communication channel is the system of official channels that carry organizationally approved messages and information, and consists of three channels: downward communication, upward communication, and horizontal communication. Organizational objectives, rules, policies, procedures, instructions, commands, and requests for information are all transmitted via the formal communication system or “channel.” The second general type of communication channel in organizations is the informal communication channel. This channel, which is sometimes called the “grapevine,” is the transmission of messages from employee to employee outside of formal communication channels. This is the place in which rumors and bits of information are shared as employees try to find out what is going on and how it might affect them or others. The most basic difference between these two
channels is that messages in the formal channel are organizationally approved, whereas those in the informal channel may or may not be organizationally approved.
Identify and briefly describe the different kinds of communication channels in organizations. Specify the things that managers should know about using these channels in order to maximize their managerial effectiveness.
There are two general types of communication channels in organizations: formal and informal. The formal communication channel is the system of official channels that carry organizationally approved messages and information. Organizational objectives, rules, policies, procedures, instructions, commands, and requests for information are all transmitted via the formal communication system or “channel.”
There are three formal communication channels: downward communication, upward communication, and horizontal communication. Downward communication flows from higher to lower levels in an organization. Downward communication is used to issue orders down the organizational hierarchy, to give organizational members job-related information, to give managers and workers performance reviews from upper managers, and to make clear organizational objectives
and goals, and to dispel rumors. Upward communication flows from lower levels to higher levels in an organization. Upward communication is used to give higher-level managers feedback about
operations, issues, and problems; to help higher-level managers assess organizational performance and effectiveness; to encourage lower-level managers and employees to participate in organizational decision making; and to give those at lower levels the chance to share their concerns with higher-level authorities. Horizontal communication flows among managers and workers who are at the same organizational level. Horizontal communication helps facilitate coordination and cooperation between different parts of a company and allows co-workers to share relevant information. It also helps people at the same level resolve conflicts and solve problems without involving high levels of management.
In order to maximize their effectiveness with formal communication channels, managers should understand the basic nature and functions of these channels as just described. In addition, they should follow four recommendations: (1) decrease reliance on downward communication, (2) increase chances for upward communication by increasing personal contact with lower-level managers and workers, (3) encourage much greater use of horizontal communication, and (4) be aware of the problems associated with downward, upward, and horizontal communication.
The second general type of communication channel in organizations is the informal communication channel. This channel, which is sometimes called the “grapevine,” is the transmission of messages from employee to employee outside of formal communication channels. The grapevine arises out of curiosity, that is, the need to know what is going on in an organization and how it might affect you or others. And to satisfy this curiosity, employees need a consistent supply of relevant, accurate, in-depth information about
who is doing what and what changes are occurring within the organization.
In order to maximize their effectiveness with informal communication channels, managers need to understand the inevitability of the grapevine. They must realize that they cannot “manage” the grapevine by withholding information or punishing those who share information with others. The grapevine abhors a vacuum, and in the absence of information from company management, rumors and anxiety will flourish.
A better strategy is to embrace the grapevine to keep employees informed about possible changes and strategies. But in addition to using the grapevine to communicate with others, managers should not overlook the fact that the grapevine can be a tremendous source of valuable information and feedback. In fact, information flowing through organizational grapevines is estimated to be 75 percent to 95 percent accurate. For this reason, managers should gather their courage and be willing to read the anonymous comments that angry, frustrated employees now post on Internet “gripe sites” like walmart-sucks.com, untied.com (about United Airlines), stainedapron.com (for griping restaurant workers), or Vault.com, where employees post grips about hundreds of different companies. Exhibit 18.8 lists other strategies that today’s managers can use in dealing with gripe sites, the newest form of the traditional organizational
grapevine. Thus, managers should pay attention to the information traveling through the grapevine for what it can tell them about the effectiveness of their decisions and management practices.
What are the two reasons why companies use organization-wide communications? Define three types of organization-wide communication. Give an example of the effective or ineffective use of each communication. Using the material from the text chapter on Managing Communication, explain why the example was particularly effective or ineffective.
The purpose of organization-wide communication is twofold: (1) to allow managers to effectively communicate to a larger number of people throughout the organization (i.e., to get the message out); and (2) to allow managers to make themselves accessible (i.e., to hear what employees throughout their organizations are feeling and thinking).
“Getting the message out” is facilitated by e-mail, online discussion forums, televised/videotaped speeches and conferences, corporate talk shows, and broadcast voice mail. Such communication is
extremely simple in the case of e-mail, where with the click of a button, managers can send an e-mail
message to everyone in the company via e-mail distribution lists. In addition, online discussion forums (which are the in-house equivalent of Internet newsgroups; Web- or software-based discussion tools are available across the company to permit employees to easily ask questions and share knowledge with each other) permit employees to avoid “reinventing the wheel,” and provide a historical database for people dealing with particular problems for the first time. Televised/videotaped speeches and meetings are simply speeches and meetings originally made to a smaller audience that are either simultaneously broadcast to other locations in the company or videotaped for subsequent distribution and viewing. Corporate talk
shows are a variant on televised/videotaped speeches and meetings which allow remote audience members, all of whom are typically workers or managers, to pose questions to the show’s host and guests. Finally, broadcast voice mail allows managers to send a recorded message to everyone in the company, and thus gives top managers a quick, convenient way to address their work forces via oral communication.
Regarding the second purpose of organization-wide communication, managers need to overcome organizational silence (a situation in which employees withhold information about organizational problems or issues, which occurs when employees believe that telling management about problems won’t make a difference, or that they’ll be punished for sharing such information) to find ways to hear what others feel and think. This can be done through anonymous company hotlines, survey feedback, frequent informal meetings, and surprise visits. All of these techniques help managers improve reception by hearing what others in the organization feel and think. Company hotlines are phone numbers that anyone in the company
can anonymously call to leave information for upper management. Survey feedback is information collected by survey from organizational members that is then compiled, disseminated, and used to develop action plans for improvement. Frequent, informal meetings between top managers and lower-level employees are one of the best ways for top managers to hear what others feel and think. Finally, one of the ways to get an accurate picture is to pay surprise visits (which should not be surprise inspections) to various parts of the organization. Surprise visits should be used as an opportunity to increase the chances for meaningful
upward communication from those who normally don’t get a chance to work with upper management.
Student examples should clearly be manifestations of organization-wide communication, as opposed to one-on-one or small group communication. Original examples derived from personal experience, conversations with others, or other outside sources demonstrate a higher level of understanding of the text material than examples drawn directly from the textbook. Better answers will clearly use the chapter material to justify why the example given was particularly effective or ineffective.
Noise interferes with communication. List the situations noise can occur in.
Situations with Noise:
- The sender isn’t sure what message to communicate.
- The Message is not clearly encoded.
- The wrong communication channel is chosen.
- The message is not received or decoded property.
- The receiver doesn’t have the experience or time to understand the message.
Identify the common problems of downward communications.
Overusing downward communication by sending too many messages.
Issuing contradictory messages.
Hurriedly communicating vague, unclear message.
Issuing messages that indicate management’s low regard for lower-level workers.
Identify the common problems of upward communications.
The risk involved with telling upper management about problems. (i.e. fear of retribution).
Managers reacting angrily and defensively when workers report problems.
Not enough opportunities or channels for lower-level workers to contact upper levels of management.
Identify the common problems of horizontal communications.
Management discouraging or punishing horizontal communication, viewing it as small talk.
Not giving managers and workers the time or opportunity for horizontal communication.
Not enough opportunities or channels for lower-level workers to engage on horizontal communication.
Identify the differences between Affective and Neutral culture.
In Affective cultures, People:
- Reveal thoughts and feeling through verbal and nonverbal communications.
- Express and show feeling of tension.
- Let their emotions show easily, intensely, and without inhibition.
- Admire heated, animated, and intense expression of emotion.
- Are used to touching, gesturing, and showing strong emotions through facial expressions (all are common).
- Make statement with emotion.
In Neutral cultures, People:
- Don’t reveal what they are thinking or feeling.
- Hide tension and only show it accidentally in face or posture.
- Suppress emotions, leading to occasional “explosions”.
- Admire remaining coll, calm, and relaxed.
- Resist touching, gesturing, and showing strong emotions through facial expressions.
- Often make statements in an unexpressive manner.
What are mono-chronic and poly-chronic cultures. Additionally discuss their differences
People in Monochronic cultures:
- Do one thing at a time.
- Concentrate on the job.
- Take time commitments (deadlines, schedules) seriously.
- Are committed to the job
- Adhere scrupulously to plans.
- Are concerned about not disturbing other (privacy is to be respected)
- Show respect for private property (rarely lend or borrow things).
- Emphasize promptness
People of Polychronic Cultures:
- Do many things at once.
- Are highly distractible and subject to interruptions.
- Meet time commitments only if possible without extreme measures.
- Are committed to people.
- Change plans easily and often.
- Are more concerned with relationships (family, friends, business associates) than with privacy.
- Frequently borrow and lend things.
- Vary their promptness by the relationship.
- tend to build lifetime relationship.
Explain how to manage One-to-One communication.
One-to-One communication can be managed by choosing the right communication medium, being a good listener, giving effective feedback, and understanding cross-cultural communication. managers generally prefer oral communication because it provides the opportunity to ask question and assess nonverbal communication. oral communication is best suited to complex, ambiguous, or emotionally laden topics. written communication is best suited for delivering straightforward messages and information. listening is important for managerial success, but most people are terrible listeners. to improve your listening skills, choose to be an active listener (clarify responses, paraphrase,and summarize) and an empathetic listener (show your desire to understand, reflect feelings). Feedback can be constructive or destructive. to be constructive, feedback must be immediate, focused on specific behaviors, and problem orientated. Finally, to increase the chances for successful cross-cultural communication, familiarize yourself with a culture’s general work norms, determine whether a culture is emotionally effective or neutral, develop respect for other cultures and understand how address terms and attitudes toward time (poly-chronic vs. Mono-chronic time; appointment, schedule, discussion, and acquaintance time) differ from culture to culture.
