Common errors in human memory

Question 1

Eye witness testimony

Answer 1

Used for forensic evidience

marketing, advertising and personal understanding of the world.

Question 2

Misinformation effect

Answer 2

When incorrect or misleading information after an event leads to it being incorporated into the memory.
Memory distortions are more common following misinformation about peripheral features than central features, such as broken glass
Memory can be contaminated by erroneous information that people are exposed to after they witness an event
Happens when recall of episodic memory becomes less accurate because of post event information.

Question 3

Memory biases

Answer 3

As we remember things, we incorporate some semantic knowledge into our episodic memories. Sometimes it is information that wasn’t actually there, and is incorporated into the memory for that event.
Can mix up dates times

Question 4

False memeory

Answer 4

Memories of implanted events that did not occur. This could potentially send someone to jail if an incorrect account is given.
Therapists can put false memories into the client’s head.

Question 5

Confirmation bias

Answer 5

Event memory is influenced by the observer’s expectations. A tendency for eyewitness memory to be distorted by the eyewitness’s prior expectation.

Question 6

Schemas in long term memory

Answer 6

Can lead us to form certain expectations.
(Most people’s bank robbers schemas include information that robbers are typically male, wear dark clothing, have a getaway car etc)

Question 7

Misinformation effect

Answer 7

Eyewitness inaccuracies occur as they often fail to attend fully to the crime situation. Eyewitness memories are fragile and can be distrorted by misleading information presented afterwards.

Question 8

Eyewitness memory

Answer 8

can be distorted be misleading information presented before an event. Watching a video about a robbery the day before could influence your account of an actual robbery the day after.

Question 9

How does misleading post-event information distort what eyewitnesses report?

Answer 9

A memory probe (e.g, a question) activates memory traces overlapping with it in the information they contain. Misattribution is more likely when two events are similar.

Question 10

Weapon focus

Answer 10

The finding that eyewitnesses pay so much attention to some crucial aspect of the situation (e.g. the weapon) that they ignore the other details.
This is because: people attend to stimuli that are unexpected in the current situation - inconsistent with schema. Impairs memory for other stimuli.

Question 11

Brain activity associated in memories when giving a recount

Answer 11

Enhanced connectivity between the amygdala and the hippocampus (both involved in memory formation.

Question 12

The two most important factors causing the misinformation effect

Answer 12

Source misattribution (misidentification of the origin of a memory by the person making the memory recall) and reconsolidation (the process of replacing or disrupting a stored memory with a new version of the memory).
Other factors:
The vacant slot explanation: misinformation

Question 13

Stress and memory for an eyewitness account

Answer 13

Impairs memory. It causes a narrowing of attention on central or important stimuli, which causes a reduction in the ability to remember peripheral details.

Question 14

Is eyewitness memory better in older people compared to young people?

Answer 14

Less accurate in older people. Older adults have a greater chance of producing false memories on later recall.

Question 15

Own age bias

Answer 15

All ages have more accurate identification of a culprit when they are of a similar age.
Does not occur for teachers or geriatric nurses.
Experience with old faces influences later stages of face processing but not early perceptual processing.

Question 16

Percentage of eyewitness identification

Answer 16

20% identified a non-suspect
40% identified the suspect
40 failed to make an identification
Eyewitnesses that are very confident are more likely to be more accurate that those that are less confident.

Question 17

Unconscious transferrence

Answer 17

An eyewitness misidentifying a familiar (but innocent) face as being the person responsible for a crime.

Question 18

Other-race effect

Answer 18

Recognition memory for same-race faces is generally more accurate than for other-race faces.
May occur because we find it hard to remember the faces of individuals belonging to other races.
Perceptual processes are also involved.
Photo of a face can show considerable variability. Hard for someone to identify a culprit based on one photo.

Question 19

Differences in lab studies to real-life crimes

Answer 19

Eyewitnesses are more likely to be the victim in real life.
It is less stressful to watch a video than to experience it
Lab research of eyewitness making a mistake are trivial

Question 20

Artificial laboratory conditions for eyewitness accounts

Answer 20

Distort the finding modestly.
Lab condition underestimate memory deficiencies for real-life events.
However it is relevant to the legal system.

Question 21

Line-ups - Simultaneous (see everyone at the same time)
Sequential (eyewitness sees one person at a time)
Which is more effective?

Answer 21

Sequential is more effective.
Misidentification can be reduced even further by providing a ‘not sure’ option.
Warn everyone that the culprit may not be in the line-up

Question 22

Cognitive interview - 4 steps to maximising information provided by eyewitness

Answer 22

1. Mental reinstatement of the environment and personal contact experience during the crime.
2. Encourage reporting of every detail.
3. Describe the incident in several different orders (backwards)
4. Report incident from different viewpoints - including those of other eyewitnesses.
   First two rules are from the encoding principle.
   Small increase in recall of incorrect details compared to a standard interview.

Question 23

Why is a cognitive interview recommended with

Answer 23

It has a well-established theoretical and empirical basis. Best possible way of obtaining accurate information.

Question 24

Limitations of cognitive interview

Answer 24

A small increased amount of incorrect recall an lead detectives to misinterpret the evidence
Context reinstatement can have a negative impact on recognition memory by increasing the perceived familiarity of non-target faces.
Cognitive interview is less effective when: the event was stressful than when is was not.
There is a long delay between event and interview.