COMM 308 notecards Flashcards
When coding, how many must agree?
70%
Unobtrusive Research
Methods of studying social behavior without affecting it. (Research in which the participants are not aware of being observed.)
Content Analysis
The study of recorded human communications (i.e. books, websites, paintings, laws).
The Verbal Model
“Who says what, to whom, why, how, and with what effect?” -Lasswell
Common coding categories:
Who (medium, media outlet, sources)What (domains)How (frames)
Identify who this is from:1.) Which data are analyzed?2.) How are they defined?3.) What is the population from which they are drawn?4.) What is the context relative to which the data are analyzed?5.) What are the boundaries of the analysis?6.) What is the target of the inferences?
Krippendorff (1980)
Appeals that work the best in advertisements
Wealth/prestige/successSexHumorSports/adventureHolidaysTraditionTaste/quality
Manifest Content
The visible, surface content
Latent Content
Underlying meaning
If the only goal is causation, what is the best research method?
Experiment
When you want to draw inferences but make sure findings are generalizable to population, what is the best research method?
Panel survey
“I know when I see it.”
Justice Potter Stewart
What term is pornography?
Lay term; not all is illegal
What term is obscenity?
Legal term; common (based on the Miller Test)
What things define obscenity?
i. Average person would find the work appeals to prurient interest
ii. Whether the work depicts sexual conduct in an offensive way
iii. Lacks artistic, political, scientific, literary value
What was the Rimm Report?
Made the cover of Time Magazine in 1995. He concluded that 53% of online sites are used for recreational pornographic activity.
What were critiques of the Rimm Report?
-Only one author (undergrad at Carnegie-Mellon)-Article published in a non-peer reviewed journal-Generalization to the Web not correct-Says a marketing paper, but no reference to marketing literature-Driven by political agenda (to regulate porn)-Makes unsubstantiated statements-Lacked objectivity
5 major issues when examining web content
1.) How to identify the units to be sampled2.) How to collect data for cross-coder tests when the web changes rapidly3.) How to solve copyright issues if researchers download web pages from analysis4.) How to standardize units of analysis given the multimedia features of the web5.) How to check inter-coder reliability
Strengths of content analysis
i. Economy of time and money
ii. Allowing for the correction of errors
iii. Permits the study of processes occurring over time
iv. Research has little (if any) effect on subjects
v. Reliability
Weaknesses of content analysis
i. Limited to recorded communications
ii. Validity
Quantitative Analysis
The numerical representation and manipulation of observations for the purpose of describing and explaining the phenomenon that those observations reflect.
Levels of Measurement
Nominal: Gender, hair color, ethnicityOrdinal: SES, conservationInterval: Temperature (F), IQ scoresRatio: Temperature (kelvin), age, GPA
Dispersion
The distribution of values around some central value such as an average.
Standard Deviation
A measure of dispersion around the mean.
Continuous Variable
A variable whose attributes form a steady progression, such as age or income. (Ordinal, Interval, Ratio)
Discrete Variable
A variable whose attributes are separate from one another, such as gender or political affiliation. (Dichotomous, Categorical)
Univariate statistics
Include descriptive statistics and frequencies of single variables. Provide general picture of data. Do not determine significance.
Bivariate statistics
Include Pearson correlation. Statistical tests of relationships of two variables. Determine statistical significance.
Multivariate statistics
Regression, ANOVA, etc. Statistical tests of relationship.
What does the P-Value measure?
How certain we are that we can reject the null hypothesis. Probability ranging from 0 to 1.
The smaller the P-Value…
…the more strongly a test rejects the null hypothesis.
Commonly reported P-Values
.001.01.05
A P-Value must have a number less than:
.05 as an indicator of significance.
The lower the P-Value…
…the more significance.
Descriptive Statistics
Statistical computations describing either the characteristics of a sample or the relationship among variables in a sample.
Inferential Statistics
The body of statistical computations relevant to making inferences from the findings based on sample observations to some larger population.
Level of significance
In the context of texts of statistical significance, the degree of likelihood that an observed, empirical relationship could be attributed to the sampling error.
A relationship is significant at the .05 level if…
…the likelihood of its being only a function of sampling error is on greater than 5 out of 100.
Chi-Square Table Statistics
are normally used in content analysis to determine whether a form of content has a certain coding category.
T-Test
Measure for judging the statistical differences in two groups means: -It assesses whether a continuous outcome variable varies between two groups.-It examines differences in a continuous variable by a nominal variable with just two response categories.
Linear Regression Analysis
A form of statistical analysis that seeks the equation for the straight line that best describes the relationship between two continuous variables.
Multiple Regression Analysis
A form of statistical analysis that seeks the equations representing the impact of two or more independent variables on a single dependent variable.
Standard Deviation
1 level of dispersion
Structural Equation Modeling
Looking at the steps; permits us to test multiple series of regression models at the same time. It’s the only model we’ve studied that tests multiple steps at the same time.
Factor Analysis
Measures series of items and indicates how many dimensions they constitute.
How does the natural setting affect validity?
It improves validity because you are in a normal setting.
Roles of the observer in qualitative field research:
Participant, researcher, observer
Reactivity
The problem of social research subjects potentially reacting to being studied, thus altering their behavior from what it would have normally been.
Reflexivity
The researcher being aware of his or her effect on the process and outcomes of research.
Qualitative field research paradigms:
a. Naturalism
b. Ethnomethodology
c. Case studies
d. Institutional ethnography
e. Participatory actions research
f. Grounded theory
Grounded Theory guidelines
- Think conservatively
- Obtain multiple viewpoints
- Periodically step back
- Maintain an attitude of skepticism
- Follow the research procedures
When preparing for the field of qualitative field research:
Be familiar with relevant research. Discuss your plans with others in the area. Identify and meet informants. Ethical considerations.
Stages in complete interviewing process when conducting qualitative field research:
i. Thematizing:
ii. Designing
iii. Interviewing
iv. Transcribing
v. Analyzing
vi. Verifying
vii. Reporting
Focus Group advantages
Real-life data flexible, high degree of face validity, fast, inexpensive
Focus Group disadvantages
Not representative, little interviewer control, difficult analysis, interviewer/moderator skills, difficult logistically
When recording observations:
i. Take detailed notes, but balance with observations
ii. Rewrite notes with observations soon after observations with filled in details
iii. Record everything
Strengths of qualitative field research:
Effective for studying subtle nuances in attitudes and behaviors and social processes over time. Flexibility. Inexpensive.
Weaknesses of qualitative field research:
No appropriate statistical analysis. Potential problems with reliability.
Qualitative field research has greater validity than…
…survey and experimental measurements.
Qualitative Analysis
The non-numerical examination and interpretation of observations, for the purpose of discovering underlying meanings and patterns of relationship.
Grounded Theory Method (GTM)
An inductive approach to research in which theories are generated solely from an examination of data rather than being derived deductively.
Constant comparative method
A component of the Grounded Theory Method in which observations are compared with one another and with the evolving inductive theory.
Four stages of constant comparative method (Glaser and Strauss):
i. Comparing incident application to each category
ii. Integrating categories and their properties
iii. Delimiting the theory
iv. Writing theory
Conversation Analysis
A meticulous analysis of the details of conversation, based on a complete transcript that includes pauses, hems, and haws.
Fundamental Assumptions
- Conversation is a socially constructed activity
- Conversations must be understood contextually
- Conversational analysis aims to understand the structure and meaning of conversation through excruciatingly accurate transcripts of conversations
