Collecting and preparing qualitative data Flashcards
What are the qualities of a good research plan?
Needs to be broadly defined and open, incorporating the theoretical framework and ethics, not just the methods for both generating and analysing the data. The chosen data collection and analysis methods should be appropriate for the research question being asked, and the method of collection should generate data appropriate to that method of analysis
What are the 3 different routes to guide research design?
1) Organisation by research question type - e.g. if you’re looking for people’s experiences this would be best supported by an interview method of data collection while a question looking at understanding/perceptions might be best supported by a focus group method. The question will also dictate what are the most suitable methods of data analysis and sample size
2) Organisation by method of data collection - e.g. interactive data collection methods such as interviews, ppt-generated textual data such as surveys, or secondary sources. Data collection method will guide how much data might be needed (although this will also be influenced by particular research question, type of analysis chosen, richness of data etc. Remember the research plan is only broadly defined, specifics will be worked out in the process) and also which methods of analysis are/are not suitable
3) Organisation by method of data analysis - e.g. thematic analysis. Methods of analysis will influence the types of questions that can be asked, suitable types of data, how much data might be needed and what sampling approach to use
How should sampling strategies be chosen?
In such a way that they yield rich information and are consistent with the methodological approach being used i.e. need to make sure you have a large enough sample to obtain enough data to adequately answer the question you’re asking.
What are qualitative research samples generally like?
Smaller than for quantitative research (usually around 15-30 ppts, and any more than 50 would be considered a large sample)
What is the amount of data i.e. sample size we need driven by?
What you want to know, what will have credibility, and also what is possible with time and resources (e.g. interviews will be more time consuming than surveys)
Also the concept of saturation i.e. the point at which additional data stops being new information. More ppts will be needed if the topic is broad, if the topic is sensitive/less accessible (because individuals might provide less detailed info), or if the data is “shallow” e.g. data from qualitative surveys. The less info from each ppt, the more ppts you need
EXAMPLE - Study exploring men’s experiences of their bodies (broad) using surveys (shallow) would generally require more ppts than a study into men’s experiences of anorexia (narrow) using in-depth interviews
What is an important consideration in sampling?
Inclusion criteria - we want to yield rich information while also being consistent with our research question and methodology
What are the 6 possible sampling methods?
1) Purposive - identify characteristics you need, develop a list of potential participants and invite them to participate
2) Snowballing - choose the first participant based on their profile (purposive) and then ask them to identify others
3) Convenience - Find the correct location and choose those most likely to cooperate. These ppts will often be self-selected e.g. responding to an advert, so these are generally far broader samples. A classic example of this is usually uni students
4) Stratification - sampling to ensure that the range and diversity of different groups in a population are represented in the sample (variation might be demographic or phenomenal)
5) Theoretical sampling - Sampling becomes an interative process where data analysis and theory development shapes selection of subsequent ppts to elaborate the developing theory
6) Criterion sampling - in some instances the data set will have a specific criterion e.g. may be sampling for a specific event/issue, and in this scenario you would sample all or some of the data meeting that criterion
What is a problem with the concept of saturation as a rationale for sample size?
It invokes a rather experiential/positivist model of qualitative research where data are collected to provide a “complete” and “truthful” picture of the object of study, a theoretical position not all qualitative research subscribes to
What is meant by inclusion/exclusion criteria for a sample?
Who DO we want to hear from and who do we not?
Sometimes the aim for sampling is to have a diversity of perspectives (maximum heterogeneity sampling), or the opposite (maximum homogeneity sampling), or something in between.
The most important thing to bear in mind is that we are not sampling different “types” of people with an aim to generalise to the rest of the population. For example, when a demographic variable such as sex or age is used it is because, by virtue of their sex, persons of one or other sex can provide certain information towards an analytic goal. It is not because the researcher wishes to generalise to other persons of the same sex.
What are the advantages of sampling “beyond the usual suspects”?
Generate better knowledge and also “give voice” to marginalised groups, “hidden populations” whose group membership may not be visible/may be stigmatised. These hidden populations overlap with hard-to-reach groups e.g. those who fall outside of sampling pools because they live rurally, those for whom participation could be risky, or those who have had negative experiences of research in the past
Summarise the 8 key considerations to make at recruitment stage?
1) Decide on a recruitment strategy i.e. who is our sample and how can we find and get them to participate? (should always start sampling very early because there is little way of knowing sometimes whether ppt recruitment will be easy or difficult)
2) Choose what to say when recruiting the ppts
3) Information for ppts
4) Collection of demographic data
5) Special considerations/populations
6) Rethinking recruitment strategy
7) Saturation
8) Incentives/”thank you” payments
The researcher must provide a detailed recruitment protocol that includes a justification for the approach proposed, a flow diagram of the stages of recruitment and a consideration of the measures in place to manage the risks to the participant e.g. whether there is need for a gatekeeper
What information should be provided for ppts?
Initially we need eye-catching adverts explaining to ppts why we need their expertise. At the early stage be cautious about revealing too much about the study and its aims. Also provide contact details. All recruitment materials and strategies need to be approved under the ethics protocol
Once recruited ppts should be informed in more detail of the scope and the practical/ethical elements of the project and they should be given a consent form
Why do we need demographic data in qualitative research?
Need to be able to reflect on a participant’s context when analysing their data - it is important to reflect on the relationship between results and sample. Other groups might hold different views/have different experiences so we need some way of judging which groups our ppts “belong to”
It is also an ethical consideration - makes sure we’re not just sampling the usual suspects
What are the different ways in which demographic data collection can vary?
It depends on the research question whether it is simply a tick sheet on a survey or whether you want the ppts defining themselves in their own words e.g. in a study of gender the latter would be better
What is CRITICAL regarding demographic information in qualitative research?
The information must never be used as a variable i.e. it isn’t something the data are analysed or interpreted on the basis of.
It cam be used to show the diversity of a sample or show particular characteristics of each ppt, but it is important only for the purpose of showing the limits of what we can claim and on what basis we can claim it
What is meant by a “gatekeeper” in samples of special populations?
Any person or institution that acts as an intermediary between a researcher and potential participants. A gatekeeper may also have the power to grant or deny permission for access to potential research participants.
Use of a gatekeeper will be necessary where a researcher does not have legitimate access to personal data (names and contact details) of potential participants; in such cases a gatekeeper who does have such access will need to make first contact on behalf of the researcher. In other cases it may be good etiquette (though not mandatory) to use a gatekeeper.
What are some examples of possible gatekeepers?
Health and social care professionals, such as those working with patients, children or elderly
An employer, for research within a workplace / organisation
Any adult whose permission is required to gain access to research participants within a community (in the UK or overseas), such as another family member (e.g. the parent or husband of the participant), clergy, community leaders or community elders.
What is the problem with sampling in psychological research historically?
Sampling of the “usual suspects” dominates, and all too frequently these ppts are used to represent ANY ppt. They are not seen as having specific locations within the culture, which make them a certain TYPE of ppt. Their responses are not analysed as being from educated, white, middle class, straight people, but they do. Including only the usual suspects perpetuates their predominance in psychological knowledge and their views/experiences continue to be over-represented
What considerations must researchers make when sampling from hidden populations?
Many of these ppts can also be considered vulnerable and in need of extra care, particularly when researching topics which are sensitive/private/personal. Need to be theoretically and culturally sensitive to ppts’ specificities and undertake ongoing reflexive analysis of your role and interpretations as a researcher.
Recruitment can be harder unless we already have access to a particular group. If not, recruitment can be quite involved/require non-traditional practices e.g. some researchers have spent a year getting to know a particular community before being able to recruit them for research
What are some contentious issues with incentives?
Not all researchers will have funding to cover this
Belief that “paying” ppts alters the nature of the research and introduces bias
Whether the incentive should be advertised is another issue - BPS ethically suggests that ppts should never be TEMPTED by an incentive to be exposed to harm they wouldn’t normally be exposed to
However ppts are offering up their time and do deserve to be compensated e.g. for costs of travel, and in this way incentives can boost inclusivity i.e. give people a chance to participate who might not have found it financially viable otherwise
Incentives are generally not necessary if sampling from a ppt pool e.g. students. Wherever recompense is offered it should be small and practical, or something like a prize draw
Why can qualitative studies be ethically challenging?
The researcher has to both evaluate what is being observed/reported, AND interpret it
Challenges include anonymity, confidentiality, informed consent, and the potential impact of researchers on ppts (and vice versa)
What is the difference between micro- and macro-ethics?
MICRO = focus on ethics at the level of research ppts MACRO = ethics applied at the level of the society in which the research is being conducted
In an ethical orientation to research, both would be considered
What considerations should you make when audio recording an interview?
Test equipment beforehand
Memorise interview guide as much as possible
Ppts must agree to being recorded and must understand why the recording is being made and how it will be used
Offer interviewee copy of transcript after
Keep brief notes during interview to keep track
Make “field notes” after to record ppts’ self-presentation and surroundings, reflect on personal reactions to the ppts, how the interview went, ideas for data analysis etc.
What considerations should be planned for prior to an interview?
1) Where is the interview being conducted? Privacy, safety, comfort, safety buddies
2) What will you wear - can affect how ppt perceives and subsequently interacts with you. Different appearances will suit different ppt groups
3) Who are you interviewing and what are their needs?
4) Ways to establish good rapport and make the experience as good as possible for the ppt, even just things like how to align the chairs
