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Cognitive Theory Flashcards

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1
Q

memory definition

A

an active, information processing system that receives, organises store and recovers information

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2
Q

important characteristics of memory

A
  • not a single structure but a series of interconnected systems in different parts of the brain.
  • not reproductive but is reconstructed
    -organic as it degrades over time and can change when recalled
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3
Q

three processes of memory

A
  1. encoding
  2. storage
  3. retrieval
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4
Q

Encoding definition

A

the process of transducing information into a usable form which can be stored in the brain. This process occurs between both sensory and STM and STM to LTM.

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5
Q

storage definition

A

retaining information in the brain so it can be accessed in the future

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6
Q

storage definition

A

retaining information in the brain so it can be accessed in the future

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7
Q

Retrieval definition

A

recovery or accessing of stored information

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8
Q

sensory memory

A

the entry level of memory, can only be retained in original form. enables perceptual continuity for the world around us.

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9
Q

functions of sensory memory

A

-acts as a filter.
filters our unimportant information which is lost. duration of memory is brief but long enough to determine importance for the STM

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10
Q

Sensory memory capacity and duration

A

Capacity= unlimited
D= 0.2-4 seconds

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11
Q

Divisions of sensory memory

A

iconic and echoic memory

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12
Q

Iconic memory

A

-temporary store for information received from the visual system. images are registered as iconic memory before the previous image fade, in order to view the world continuously. the capacity is unlimited and duration is 0.2-4seconds.

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13
Q

Echoic memory

A

stores info received from the auditory system.
holds as unprocessed form, capacity is unlimited and duration is 3-4 seconds, after the stimulus ends.

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14
Q

Short term memory

A

-receives information from two places, from sensory to be encoded and LTM to be manipulated or used.

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15
Q

Short term memory

A

-holds all information you are consciously aware of at any moment in time.
all conscious perceiving, feeling, thinking, reasoning and other mental processes take place

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16
Q

STM capacity and duration

A

C=5-9 pieces of information
D=18-20 seconds unless consciously rehearsed.

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17
Q

Maintenance rehearsal

A

this is the process of repeating something over and over again to keep it in your STM

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18
Q

Decay

A

information is not maintained by rehearsal and simply fades away

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19
Q

Displacement

A

new information pushes out information that is already in STM

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20
Q

Long term memory

A

-hold information relatively permantley in a highly organised way
-different types of memories are associated with different kinds of information and are stored in different parts of the brain.

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21
Q

LTM capacity and duration

A

C=unlimited
D=potentially permanent

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22
Q

Strength of Multi-store model of memory

A

-It distinguishes between the different stores involved in memory.
-Each memory store has a different capacity and duration.
-Provides a good understanding of the structure and process of memory.
-Findings from memory studies support the distinction between STM and LTM outline in the model.
-The model can help explain why amnesia patients may have difficulty retrieving memories from LTM or encoding information from STM to LTM.

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23
Q

Limitations of Multi-store model of memory

A

-May be considered to be oversimplified.
-STM is more complex than the model suggests. —-Baddeley and Hitch (1974) propose that STM is not just a singular store but rather encompasses different components within it.
The model ignores factors, such as motivation and strategy, which can facilitate learning and assist in encoding information from STM to LTM.
Initially, the model proposed that rehearsal was necessary for information to be transferred into LTM. However, studies show that transferring information into LTM can occur without rehearsal.
Does not account for individual differences in memory processes, storage duration, and capacity.

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24
Q

flashbulb memories

A

proposed by brown and kulik in the 1970s
-highly detailed, exceptionally vivid ‘snapshot’ of the moment when a surprising and emotionally arousing event happened.
event must be: personally relavent, emotionally arousing, or surprising and unexcepted.

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25
Q

details included in flashbulb memories

A

Informant - the source of the information.
Place- the news was heard
Event - what you were doing at the time of the event
Affect - emotion of both yourself and others
Aftermath- remember the consequences of the event.

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26
Q

special mechanism hypothesis

A

-argues that special biological mechanisms exist that when triggered by an event exceeding critical levels, creates a permanent record of details.
-when an event triggers emotion, arousal which leads to the creation of a memory that has different characteristics.

27
Q

amygdala

A

located in the medial temporal lobe
one in each hemisphere
almond shaped structure
processes and regulates emotions such as fear and aggression.

28
Q

importance driven model

A

-expanded on the original model.
-model deepens the special mechanism hypothesis, arguing that its is personal relevance that makes the memory different. the two significant factors that lead to FBMS being created are:
-level of surprise
-high levels of personal consequentiality which is meet by a strong emotional reaction.

29
Q

dual task technique

A

-observed in lab experiments, that is participants perform two tasks simultaneously that both involved listening, the perform them less than if done separately.
-if auditory and visual tasks were performed simultaneously there was no problem.
-DTT= participants carrying out two tasks at one time.

30
Q

working memory model

A

-baddeley and hitch (1974) proposed a four component structure to working memory.
-their working memory model suggeats that STM is not a single store but rather consists of a number of different stores.

31
Q

phonological loop

A

also called ‘verbal working memory.
two components:
-articulatory control system
-phonological store

32
Q

Articulatory control system

A

-hold information in a verbal form. happens when repeating information in your head.
-also believed to hold words ready for cognitive tasks, eg’ as you prepare to speak.
-also allows for the rehearsal of information held by the inner ear, increasing duration.
-information can originate from the echoic or LTM

33
Q

phonological store

A

the inner ear.
-temporary holds verbal and acoustic information in a sound-based form.
these representation of sound will last for 1.5-2 seconds

34
Q

visou spatial sketchpad

A
  • visual working memory
    -temporary stores visual and spatial information that comes from sensory memory or LTM
35
Q

visual information

A

anything you can see or visualise

36
Q

spatial information

A

the locatino of objects in spacre

37
Q

visual processing

A

includes the storage and manipulation of visual patterns and spatial movements in two or three dimensions.

38
Q

central executive

A

-Important functions: attention control.
- has limited capacity,
-also modality free, can process any sensory information.

39
Q

attention control

A

direction your memory subsystems to focus on the task at hand or switching from one task to the next.

40
Q

episodic buffer

A

-controlled by central executive
-pulls together information from the phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad to create scene, and information for the LTM>
-act as a temporary and passive display store.
capacity- 4 bits of information.

41
Q

explain how the four components of WMM work

A

-phonological loop = sub-vocally rehearses the directions
-visuo-spatial sketch pad= visualises the possible route
- central executive= directs the episodic buffer and direct attention.
episodic buffer= combines visual and verbal information from the phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketch-pad create a mental representation of the journey.

42
Q

schema theory

A

-a theory attempting to explain how our minds organise information, knowledge and memories.
central claims:
-our knowledge of the world is organised and categorised
-this can influence our cognition and behaviour.

43
Q

cognitive schema

A

-seen as mental representations that organise, our knowledge, beliefs and expectations.
-are a cluster of basic knowledfge about a concept or entity.

44
Q

why do we create schemas

A

-help us comprehend new information and organise our knowledge.
-help us generalise
-help us create conginite bias in order to conserve energy/

45
Q

Barletts schema theory

A
  • When conducting an experiment demonstrating the reconstructive capability’s of human memory.
    -gave English reading material, and asked to recall at different intervals .
    -results: the longer the interval between reading and recalling, the less accurate
    -the parts of the text that didn’t fit in with the Edwardian English schemata, there were wither omitted from the recalled information completely or had been adapted to fit in with schema.
46
Q

background on assimilation and accomidation

A

-concept of schema was first used by Jean Piaget in 1926.

47
Q

assimilation

A

is when you add information to your schmea.
-the experience or item is incorporated from the outside world into the inside world without changing pre-existing ideas.

48
Q

accomidation

A

is when an existing schema is replaced.
–change in response to new evidence about the world.
-Leon Festinger termed this uncomfortable state as ‘cognitive dissonance’. he stated it’s impossible to hold two incompatible notions in your head at the same time.

49
Q

Bottom up processing

A

-the incoming from the outside world.
-bottom up- processing occurs as our sensory receptors receive new sensory information and does not require the use of prior knowledge or experiences.
-data driven and emphasise the importance of the stimulus itself.

50
Q

Top down Processing

A

-information already stored in the memory in the form of prior knowledge influences our expectations and helps us to interpret the current input.
-schemas operate in a top-down direction to help us interpret the bottom-up flow of information from the world.

51
Q

Multi-story model of memory

A

Glanzer and Cunitz (1966, Study 2)
-serial position effect
Milner (1966)
-longitudinal case study of HM

52
Q

Serial position Effect

A

-a pattern of results found from free recalling a list of words, names or numbers.
-pattern shows that there is better recall for items at the beginining.

53
Q

primary effect

A

-better recall of items at the beginning of the list.
-occurs because have been rehearsed and transferred to LTM for storage.

54
Q

Recency effect

A

-is better recall of items at the end of the list
-occurs because items are still being rehearsed in STM when the person is asked to free recall.

55
Q

why are the words forgotten in the middle of the list

A

-unconciously ignored as items from the beginning of the list are being rehearsed and transferred to LTM

56
Q

Reconstruction

A

-combining stored information with other available information to form what is believed to be a more coherent, complete or accurate memory.

57
Q

system one vs system two

A

System one

-fast, unconscious, automatic, everyday decisions, error prone.

system two

-slow, conscious, effortful, complex decisions, reliable

58
Q

intitutive thinking (automatic)

A

Effortless way of thinking

Bases decisions on past experiences and knowledge, that is already established.

Take short cuts called ‘heuristics’ a rule used to make decisions or form judgements. Heuristics involve focusing on one aspect of a complex problem and ignoring others.

This fast mode allows for efficient processing of the often complex world around us but may be prone to errors when our assumptions do not match the realiry of a specific situation. `

59
Q

Rational thinking (controlled)

A
  • a slower, conscious and rational mode of thinking, often goal directed.
    -requires more effort and concentration
    -system 2 starts by thinking careful about all of the possible way we could interpret a situation and gradually eliminates possibilities based on sensory evidence until we arrive at a solution
    works through logic and uses conscious reasoning
    -more reliable.
60
Q

why do we tend to use system 1 thinking

A

-we are cognitive misers.
referred to the law of least efort

61
Q

what is a ‘heuristic’

A

mental shortcuts used to make decisions which usually focus on one aspect of a complex, problem.
-rules of thumb applied to guide decision making based on a more limited subset of the available information
-rely on less information.

62
Q

anchoring bias

A

Is the tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information offered when making decisions.

63
Q
A

psychology (2 decks)

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