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Cognitive Psychology > Cognitive Psychology Exam 4 > Flashcards

Cognitive Psychology Exam 4 Flashcards

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1
Q

Affirming the Antecedent

A

p therefore q

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2
Q

Denying the consequent

A

not q therefore not p

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3
Q

affirming the consequent

A

q therefore p

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4
Q

denying the antecedent

A

not p therefore not q

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5
Q

Which types of conditional syllogisms are valid?

A

Affirming the antecedent and denying the consequent

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6
Q

Which cards should you turn over in the Wason Four-Card Problem if the statement is: If Vowel, then even number – E K 4 7

A

E (affirming antecedent) 7 (denying consequent)

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7
Q

Falsification Principle

A

To test a rule, it is necessary to look for situations that would falsify the rule

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8
Q

What does the beer example vs card example show and prove

A

SHOWS: People did better on the card task when it was beers and drinking ages than when it was numbers and letters

PROVES: being able to relate the beer task to regulations about drinking makes it easier – concrete tasks are easier than abstract ones

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9
Q

Pragmatic Reasoning Schema

A

A pragmatic reasoning schema is a way of thinking about cause and effect in the world that is learned as part of experiencing everyday life

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10
Q

Permission Scheme

A

An example of the pragmatic reasoning schema that states that if a person satisfies condition A (such as being
the legal age for drinking), then he or she gets to carry out action B (being served alcohol).

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11
Q

Cholera Example

A

cholera and hepatitis included in the card experiment and people were surprisingly good which is kind alarming

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12
Q

social exchange theory

A

an important aspect of human behavior is the ability for two people to cooperate in a way that is beneficial to both people

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13
Q

What are two options to explain the four card problem

A

Cheating
Permission

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14
Q

Conclusion of Four Card Problem

A

Context is Important!!!!!!
familiar situations can often generate better reasoning than abstract statements or statements that people cannot relate to. However, familiarity is not always necessary for
conditional reasoning (as in the tattoo problem), and situations have also been devised
in which people’s performance is not improved, even in familiar situations

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15
Q

What are factors that lead to the strength of evidence in inductive reasoning?

A

Representativeness of observations – How well do the observations about a particular category represent all of the members of that category?

Number of observations

Quality of the evidence – strength of the observation (helps to include scientific facts in the evidence)

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16
Q

Availability Heuristic

A

events that are more easily remembered are
judged as being more probable than events that are less easily remembered

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17
Q

Which Heuristic does the letter R in first or third position prove

A

Availability Heuristic

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18
Q

Illusory correlations

A

Illusory correlations occur when a correlation between two events appears to exist, but in reality there is no correlation or it is
much weaker than it is assumed to be. Illusory correlations can occur when we expect
two things to be related, so we fool ourselves into thinking they are related even when
they are not.

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19
Q

Illusory Truth Effect

A

prior exposure increases ease of processing and is used as a heuristic to infer accuracy

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20
Q

Representative Heuristic

A

the probability that A is a member of class B can be determined by how well the
properties of A resembles the properties we usually associate with class B

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21
Q

Is the glasses and farmer story an example of the availability or representative heuristic

A

RepresentativeHeuristic

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22
Q

Base Rate

A

the relative proportion of different classes in the population

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23
Q

Conjuction Rule

A

the probability of a conjunction of two events (A and B)
cannot be higher than the probability of the single constituents (A alone or B alone)

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24
Q

law of large numbers

A

the larger the number of individuals that are randomly drawn from a population, the more representative the resulting
group will be of the entire population

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25
Q

Expected Utility Theory

A

This theory is based on the assumption that people are basically rational, so if they have all of the relevant information, they will make a decision that results in
the maximum expected utility

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26
Q

Expected Emotions

A

emotions that people predict they will feel for a particular outcome

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27
Q

Immediate Emotions

A

are emotions that are experienced at the time a decision is
being made

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28
Q

Integral immediate emotions

A

emotions that are associated with the act of making a decision

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29
Q

Incidental immediate emotions

A

emotions that are unrelated to the decision

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30
Q

People are risk seeking the domains of ___ and risk averse in the domains of ____

A

losses and gains

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31
Q

Framing Effect

A

decisions are influenced by how the choices are stated, or framed.

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32
Q

What is the prefrontal cortex necessary for in terms of decision making?

A

Planning and preservation, problem solving, and reasoning,

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33
Q

What two parts of the brain are activated in the utility game?

A

Anterior Insula and the PFC

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34
Q

What are some aspects of Deduction

A

Theory based inference, top-down, either true or false, validation, syllogisms

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35
Q

Major Premise

A

The two statements

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36
Q

Minor Premise

A

The conclusion

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37
Q

Belief Bias

A

tendency to think syllogism is valid if conclusion is valid

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38
Q

Which conlusions are most and least likely to be thought of as valid

what does this prove

A

MOST: believable (valid and invalid)

LEAST: unbelievable and invalid

if conclusion is believable people are less sensitive to validity

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39
Q

What does the experiement of people going under an MRI and judging syllogisms show and prove?

A

SHOWS: right inferior frontal gyrus activates on correctly identified unbelievable conclusions (overcoming intuitive wrong responses) – area is often activated during inhibition of prepotent responses and top-down effortful processing

PROVES: people use right inferior frontal gyrus to inhibit making judgment based on just conclusion

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40
Q

Mental Models

A

build model of the premises using imagination, look for exceptions, and if you don’t find one, then syllogism is true

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41
Q
A
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41
Q

Does the brain use visual imagery to respond to syllogisms and what experiment proves this?

A

YES!

Experiment: people were sometimes given visual relations (smaller bigger, cleaner and dirtier) and sometimes control condition (better worse, smarter and dumber)
SHOWS: part of brain became more active during reasoning about visual relationships

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42
Q

What is an example of a mental model that isn’t visual

A

The Beatles songs

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43
Q

Which conditional syllogism statements are difficult for people to answer?

A

Affirming the consequent and denying the antecedent

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44
Q

What are some aspects of induction

A

making probable conclusions based on evidence, data based inference, bottom up, probabilistic conclusions, prediction, not guaranteed to be correct

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45
Q

what can strengthen inductive reasoning

A

frequency and representativeness

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46
Q

Do people obtain inductive reasoning estimates by thinking hard, colllecting data, and making conclusions OR by using short-cuts (heuristics)?

A

often heuristics

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47
Q

What does the coin flip example show?

A

People prefer the one that looks more random but really they each have the exact same probability and it’s a Representative Heuristic

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48
Q

Anchoring

A

when making an evaluation, we make an initial estimate (anchor) and then adjust this value to fit additional information

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49
Q

What does the African Nations in the UN example show and prove

A

SHOW: answered 25% when spinner stopped at 10 and 45% when spinner stopped at 65

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50
Q

Explain Fake News Experiment and what it shows and proves

A

Phase 1: view 3 real and 3 fake headlines (some participants saw warning for fake items)
Phase 2: Distraction task
Phase 3: rate 24 headlines (12 old and 12 new) for familiarity and accuracy
SHOWS: when people had already seen the news headlines they reported them as more accurate regardless of their accuracy even if they were inconsistent with the participant’s ideology – Results also hold after a week!
Doesn’t work on perfectly implausibility statements like the earth being a square
PROVES: illusory truth effect – prior exposure increases ease of processing and is used as a heuristic to infer accuracy

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51
Q

Explain the Conditions of the Fake-news study

A

There were three conditions, warning abt fake news and tagged as fake, warning about fake news and no tag as fake (doesn’t mean it’s real), and control (no warning and no tag as fake)

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52
Q

What does the fake news study show

A

In the warning condition, the headlines that didn’t have a tag were rated as much more accurate later on compared to the control condition than the warning and condition with tagged headlines → implied truth effect

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53
Q

Rationality Decision Making

A

Always prefer the option with the highest utility

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54
Q

Transitivity Decision Making

A

If Utility of A is greater than Utilitity of B
and Utility of B is greater than Utility of C then Utility of A is greater than Utility of C

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55
Q

Consistency Decision Making

A

If utility of A is greater than utility of B now then utility of A will be greater than utility of B later

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56
Q

What do economists use to measure utility?

A

revealed preference

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57
Q

What is the Neuroscience Monkey Experiment

A

Monkeys chose between different amounts of water and Kool-Aid
Activity in neurons in orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) (sits behind eye sockets) was measured
Monkey chooses by choosing 4 squirts of kool aid or one squirt of water
SHOWS: monkey is indifferent between 4 kool aid and 1 water (likes water more than kool aid), two types of relevant neurons
One type of OFC neuron encodes the value of Kool aid and firing rate increases when squirts of kool aid increases
One type of OFC neuron encodes the value of chosen offer, so it fires a lot when we chose one water and also four kool aid, so it fires more when the value of the chosen option is higher

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58
Q

Decoy Effect

A

violation of consistency through a third irrelevant option

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59
Q

Which is weighed heavier: losses or gains?

A

losses

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60
Q

Endowment Effect

A

people value their goods more if they own them

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61
Q

What does the lottery ticket and sports game experiment prove?

A

Optimism Bias

62
Q

What are the two systems for decisison making?

A

System 1:
Intuitive
Fast
Non-conscious
Automatic

System 2:
Deliberative
Slow
Conscious
Controlled

63
Q

All these heuristics we have seen are part of System ___

A

1

64
Q

Hypothesis: People with higher scores on cognitive reflection test make ‘better’ decisions – Intertemporal Choice: $50 now or $100 in a month

what does this show and prove?

A

People who are good and use system 2 at cognitive reflection task are more patient and are less steep discounters

65
Q

Marshmallow Test results

A

Kids who are more patient at the marshmallow task do better on the SATs, get higher education, and are better at suppresses responses at age 41

66
Q

What does the Intertemporal choice and load experiment with the money and digits show and prove?

A

Load Condition: Have to remember 5 digits and recall number to the right of 5
SHOWS: Steeper discount in load condition
PROVES: Loading working memory reduces the value of the delayed option

67
Q

What does the risky choices and load condition show and prove?

A

More risky choices under load
Fewer risky choices under load
Cognitive load increases risk aversion
PROVES: we need to use top down control to exert control and avoid being impulsive – need top-down control to suppress risk aversion heuristic

68
Q

What does the monkey experiment with the kool aid and water show and prove?

A

One type of OFC neuron encodes the value of Kool aid and firing rate increases when squirts of kool aid increases
One type of OFC neuron encodes the value of chosen offer, so it fires a lot when we chose one water and also four kool aid, so it fires more when the value of the chosen option is higher
PROVES: activity in OFC drives decisions
BUT correlation is not causation!!!
Neurons fire based on subjective value of what is happening

69
Q

What does the second monkey experiment show and prove?

A

SHOWS: Increased preference for offer 2 in condition 1 and Increased preference for offer 1 in condition 2
PROVES: electric current reduces the utility of something of that option
Proves causation because we are sending an electric current to silence that neuron so we will have a smaller utility of that option

70
Q

Backfire Effect

A

why conversations between people with strong opposing views (as in politics) can sometimes seem counterproductive

71
Q

Are Hueristics good or bad?

A

In general really good but they can often lead us astray and lead to making irrational choices

72
Q

Gaps in Utility THeory

A
  1. Gain/loss framework (includes framing effect)
  2. Endowment Effect
  3. Decoy Effect
  4. Mood
73
Q

Indiference Point

A

decision maker truly does not care between two choices

74
Q

Resource Theory/Ego Depletion Theory

A

if willpower is eerter at first, people will be less likely to be able to exert willpower later

75
Q

Is willpower a fixed resource?

A

cookie and radish theory seems to prove this but it is not about glucose

76
Q

if resource theory doesn’t work, then what does?

A

the cost-benefit decision – people will use cost benefit analysis to decide whether or not to do something

77
Q

What does cognitive control help us overcome

A

response conflict

78
Q

is the stroop effect reduced more after an incongruent or congruent trial?

A

incongruent because you learn you need to start paying attention

79
Q
A
80
Q

language

A

a system of communication using sounds or symbols that enables us to express our feelings, thoughts, ideas, and experiences

81
Q

What are the four major concerns of psycholinguists?

A

Comprehension
Speech Production
Representation
Acquisition

82
Q

Lexicon Definition

A

a person’s knowledge of what words mean, how they sound, and how they are used in relation to other words

83
Q

Phoneme

A

the shortest segment of speech that, if changed, changes the meaning of a word

84
Q

Morpheme

A

Morphemes are the smallest units of language that have a definable meaning or a grammatical function

85
Q

Phonemic Restoration Effect

A

“fi lling in” of a missing phoneme based on the context produced by the sentence and the portion of the word –> uses top-down processing

86
Q

Speech Segmentation

A

The process of perceiving individual words in the continuous fl ow of the speech signal

87
Q

Word Superiority Effect

A

the finding that letters are easier
to recognize when they are contained in a word than when they appear alone or are
contained in a nonword

88
Q

Word Frequency

A

the relative usage of a word in a particular language

89
Q

The Lexical Decision Task Result

A

When researchers presented this task under controlled conditions, they found that
people read high-frequency words faster than low-frequency words

90
Q

Lexical Ambiguity

A

When words have more than one meaning

91
Q

Lexical Priming

A

Priming involving the naming of words is called lexical priming

92
Q

Semantics

A

the meanings of words and sentences

93
Q

Syntax

A

syntax specifies the rules for combining words into sentences

94
Q

Parsing

A

The grouping of words into phrases

95
Q

Temporary Ambiguity

A

initial words of a sentence can lead to more than one meaning

96
Q

Garden Path Sentence

A

sentences that lead the reader “down the garden path” (down a path that seems right, but turns out to be wrong

97
Q

syntax-first approach to parsing

A

focuses on how parsing is determined by syntax and the grammatical structure of the sentence

98
Q

Late Closure

A

The principle of late closure states
that when a person encounters a new word, the person’s parsing mechanism assumes that this word is part of the current phrase, so each new word is added to the current phrase for as long as possible

99
Q

Interactionist Approach to Parsing

A

This approach proposes that all information, both syntactic and semantic, is taken into account simultaneously as we read or listen to a sentence, so any corrections that need to occur
take place as the sentence is unfolding

100
Q

Anaphoric Inference

A

Inferences that connect an object or person in one sentence to
an object or person in another sentence are called anaphoric inferences

101
Q

Instrument Inference

A

Inferences about tools or methods are instrument inferences

102
Q

Causal Inference

A

Inferences that the events described in one clause or sentence were
caused by events that occurred in a previous sentence are causal inferences

103
Q

Situation Model

A

A situation model is a mental representation of what a text is about

104
Q

Given-new contrast

A

The given–new contract states that the
speaker should construct sentences so that they include two kinds of information: (1) given information—information that the listener already knows; and (2) new information—information that the listener is hearing for the first time

105
Q

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

A

the nature of a culture’s language can affect the way people think

106
Q

Cognitive Control Definition

A

The ability to flexibly guide behavior in order to achieve goal or intention while overcoming otherwise compelling response tendencies

107
Q

Task Switching requires representations to be

A

updated or reconfigured

108
Q

What two additional forms of control are required for task switching

A

Holding tasks in working memory
Suppressing the non-relevant tasks

109
Q

What are other forms of cognitive control beyond task switching?

A

response inhibition
attention
manipulating items in working memory
planning
dual tasking

110
Q

Simon Task

A

Tasked with either clicking a blue or green button depending on stimulus on screen

SHOWS: people are compelled to click the button depending on space the stimulus is on the screen even they are just supposed to be thinking about the color

111
Q

Why do we study response interference the most?

A

there is clear mapping between goals and distractors

most extensively studied

arguably incorporates concepts on prior slide

112
Q

When is the ACC activated?

A

when responding to demands on the screen

113
Q

When is the DLPFC activated?

A

during anticipation of upcoming demands

114
Q

Reactive Control

A

Respond to Stimulus in default automatic ways until the stimulus tells you that you need to start paying attention like with an incongruent stimulus

115
Q

Proactive Control

A

maintaining task in working memory at all times so that when stimulus comes on it is relatively easy
Ex. repeating in your head “respond to color of the word” over and over again

116
Q

in the AX Continuous Performance Task, how would someone falsely respond if they were using proactive control?

A

to the AY because probe was maintained

117
Q

in the AX Continuous Performance Task, how would someone falsely respond if they were using reactive control?

A

more likely to falsely respond to X after you see a B because you have been preparing to respond to X – probe was not maintained

118
Q

What is the hypothesis about working memory capacity and control?

A

people with larger working memory capacity will use proactive control because they find it easier to maintain probe which would lead to be better BX performance and worse AY performance

119
Q

Was the hypothesis abt contorl and working memory right and what does it prove?

A

RESULTS: the hypothesis was right!!!! People with good working memories were more accurate on BX trials and slower on AY trials

PROVE: strong evidence that there are two systems in the brain and are available to different degrees for different people depending on capacity for working memory

120
Q

Why do we have to exert control?

A

To achieve goals and the ability to exert cognitive control predicts academic success, increased mental health, and social competence

121
Q

What is the Dual Task Paradigm and what does it show and prove?

A

Phase 1: manipulate the amount of willpower exerted
a bowl of radishes and a bowl of cookies and one group was asked to taste and rate the radishes and one was asked to taste and rate the cookies and not the radishes
Phase 2: measure how much willpower people can still exert
Both groups were given unsolvable puzzles and see long they tried before giving up
RESULTS: radish condition gave up much more quickly than the cookie condition
PROVES: people who had already exerted willpower by not eating cookies had less resource left over to try the puzzles

122
Q

What does the glucose experiment show and prove?

A

Original Idea: brain glucose
Experiment: have people drink sugary lemonade after phase 1 and have some people drink lemonade with artificial sweetener and then therefore sugar lemonade people should be able to
Result: found that there is no depletion of willpower after real lemonade
EXPERIMENT FLAWS:
You could have just rewarded them for control and it may not be because of the lemonade
If the reward removes depletion effect then that means it wasn’t that they were unable to exert control in phase 2, it was just that they didn’t want to

Swishing a drink eliminates the depletion effect also so it does not have to do with glucose in the brain
Brain glucose just is not invovled and has been measured at other times

123
Q

What is an alternative theory to the resource model?

A

that people use cost-benefit analysis to decide to exert control

124
Q

What is the Demand Selection Task and what does it show and prove?

A

People see two patches on screen and have to select one and if number is blue, they have to judge if number is higher or lower than 5, and if number is yellow, they are supposed to say whether it is odd or even
One of the patches is high demand and one is low demand (the low demand patch has low task-switching)
SHOWS: people had preference for low demand patch
PROVES: people don’t like exerting control

125
Q

Which experiment shows that people use cost benefit analysis?

A

Money and N-back test

126
Q

What are the 4 aspects of language acquisition?

A

Acquisition
Representation
Comprehension
Production

127
Q

What is the main goal of language?

A

The main goal of language is that it allows us to express ideas to each other

128
Q

What is common group?

A

knowledge, belief, and assumptions shared between speakers

129
Q

Grounding Definition

A

process of placing information in the common ground which entails both partners knowing the information and both partners knowing that they both know it

130
Q

Presentation Phase

A

Person A presents information to be considered based on assumption that if B gives some evidence, A can believe that B understands the information

131
Q

Acceptance Phase

A

Person B accepts signals by returning evidence that they believe they understand. This is based on the assumption that once A registers this evidence, B believes A understands

132
Q

What does the experiment with postcards and NY Landmarks show and prove?

A

SHOWS: words used per picture drops over time
PROVES: common group gets established over time

133
Q

What type of memory does common ground contain?

A

Episodic and Semantic Memory and some implicity

134
Q

Can Amnesics establish a common ground

A

yes but it takes much longer – there is an implicit component (getting better) but also a lot is an explicit component

135
Q

What are three possibilities of segmenting speech into morphemes or words?

A
  1. Pauses between sounds
  2. stretch and pitch
  3. context
136
Q

Drift Diffusion Model

A
  1. At every timepoint (t), the agent samples a little bit of evidence (e)
  2. A response is made when there is enough cumulative evidence
  3. But, sampling is noisy (εt ∼ N(0, σ)
137
Q

What is the beginning of the DDM graph called

A

non-decisison time

138
Q

Noise induces ____

A

variability in RT and choice

139
Q

What is the Lateral Intraparietal Sulcus (LIP)

A

involved in selection and preparation of eye movements

140
Q

DDM Equation

A

Vt = Vt-1 + d x e + Et

141
Q

What does Vt stand for

A

decision value at time t

142
Q

What does e stand for

A

evidence at time t

143
Q

What does d stand for

A

drift rate parameter, determines how quickly we approach the decision

144
Q

What does Et stand for?

A

noise at time t due to random observations

145
Q

Speed-accuracy tradeoff

A

When we try do tasks quickly, we sacrifice accuracy

When we try do tasks accurately, we sacrifice speed

146
Q

Prediction Error Equation

A

PE = r - V

147
Q

What neurons encode prediction error

A

Dopaminergic neurons in the midbrain

148
Q

Temporal DIfference Learning Equation

A

Vt + a (r + Vt+1 - Vt)

149
Q

Does a higher or lower learning rate reduce uncertainty in a volatile world?

A

Higher

150
Q

Does a higher or lower learning rate reduce uncertainty in a stable world?

A

lower

151
Q

model based w

A

w = 1

152
Q

behavior w

A

w = .5

153
Q
A

Cognitive Psychology (3 decks)

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