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Edexcel A-Level Psychology (Paper 1) > Cognitive Psychology > Flashcards

Cognitive Psychology Flashcards

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1
Q

Encoding for sensory memory (MSM)

A

A register for each modality: auditory, visual, haptic, olfactory, gustatory

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2
Q

Encoding for short term memory (MSM)

A

acousticverbal

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3
Q

Encoding for long term memory (MSM)

A

semanticacousticverbal

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4
Q

Mode of representation for sensory memory (MSM)

A

modality specific

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5
Q

Mode of representation for short term memory (MSM)

A

acousticverbal

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6
Q

Mode of representation for long term memory (MSM)

A

semanticacousticverbal

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7
Q

Storage duration of sensory memory (MSM)

A

visual - 200-500 millisecondsechoic - 3-4 seconds

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8
Q

Storage duration of short term memory (MSM)

A

15-30 seconds

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9
Q

Storage duration of long term memory (MSM)

A

20 mins - lifetime

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10
Q

Storage capacity of sensory memory (MSM)

A

unlimited but most decays

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11
Q

Storage capacity of short term memory (MSM)

A

5-9 items

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12
Q

Storage capacity of long term memory (MSM)

A

potentially unlimited

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13
Q

Forgetting in the sensory memory (MSM)

A

decays if not transferred into STM

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14
Q

Forgetting in the short term memory (MSM)

A

decays if not rehearsed or displaced

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15
Q

Forgetting in the long term memory (MSM)

A

decay if not rehearsed

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16
Q

Retrieval in the sensory memory (MSM)

A

Scanning

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17
Q

Retrieval in the short term memory (MSM)

A

Rapid sequential scan of info

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18
Q

Retrieval in the long term memory (MSM)

A

Largely semantic search

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19
Q

Strengths of the Multi-Store Memory Model

A

Miller - he found that the STM could hold 5-9 items (Miller Magic Number 7) supports MSM Blakemore - Clive Wearing had memory impairment. STM was intact but LTM was not. Supports that they are different sections

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20
Q

Weaknesses of the Multi-Store Memory Model

A

Case of KC - After a motorcycle accident that caused memory loss, he could recall facts but not personal events. Suggests that the LTM has at least 2 storesCase of KF - After a motorcycle accident KF had impaired STM for verbal info but the memory for visual info was unaffected. Suggests separate STM stores

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21
Q

Describe the Central Executive (WMM)

A

Most complex partDeals with all tasks that require attentionCoordinates 2 separate tasksSupervisory RoleDeals with all types of info (visual, auditory, haptic etc)Limited capacity

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22
Q

Describe the Visuo-Spatial Sketchbook (WMM)

A

Deals with visual and spatial infoRight hemisphere of brainInfo represented as visualCan be from observing images or retrieving them from LTMLimited Capacity (Around 3-4 objects)

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23
Q

Describe the Phonological Loop (WMM)

A

The main function is learning languageContains:- Articulatory Loop- primary Acoustic Store

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24
Q

Describe the Articulatory Loop (WMM)

A
  • Used to rehearse sub-vocally (eg remembering phone numbers by repeating them in your head)- The main function is reading- Deals with the articulation of verbal material- Represented as it would be said- Explains articulatory suppression-Word Length Effect (capacity limited to how much can be said in 2 seconds)
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25
Q

Describe the Primary Acoustic Store (WMM)

A
  • Deals with the tone, pitch, volume of verbal info- Explains auditory processing- 2 tasks can’t be done at the same time - explains articulatory suppression - Word Length Effect (capacity limited to how much can be said in 2 seconds)
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26
Q

2 strengths of the Working Memory Model

A

Baddeley et al - found that the memory span for short words was larger than for longer words. Supports the word length effect.Baddeley and Lieberman - did an experiment with 3 conditions (no concurrent tasks, a concurrent visual task and a concurrent spatial task). there were serious effects on the concurrent tasks, supporting visuospatial sketchbook processes this info and can only do one task at a time.

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27
Q

2 weaknesses of the Working Memory Model

A

Levy - gave ppts a series of visually presented sentences to read while engaging in articulatory suppression. Did not affect the ability to remember the general gist of sentence but did affect the memory of the precise wording. therefore articulatory loop is not needed to extract meaning when reading.Lieberman - criticises WMM as it implies that spatial and visual info are linked but blind people have great spatial awareness. Argued they should be separate stores.

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28
Q

What is the episodic memory also know as?

A

The Mental Diary

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29
Q

What does the episodic memory contain?

A

memories about events that have happened to us

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30
Q

Is episodic memory linked to time and context?

A

Yes

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31
Q

Can context help retrieve episodic memories?

A

Yes

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32
Q

Does retrieval change episodic memories?

A

yes

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33
Q

Can episodic memories be retrieved consciously?

A

Yes

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34
Q

Does the episodic memory operate independantly?

A

No, it works with the semantic memory

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35
Q

What is the semantic memory also know as?

A

The Mental Encyclopaedia

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36
Q

What does the semantic memory contain?

A

Memories of words, facts, rules, meanings and concepts

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37
Q

Is the semantic memory linked to time and context?

A

No

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38
Q

Does context aid semantic memory retrieval?

A

No

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39
Q

Does retrieval change semantic memories?

A

No

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40
Q

Can semantic memories be retrieved consciously?

A

yes

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41
Q

Does the semantic memory operate independantly?

A

Yes

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42
Q

2 Strengths of Episodic and Semantic memory

A

Tulving - performed brain scans on 6 ppts and found when using their episodic memory the prefrontal lobes in the brain were active compared to when using semantic memory the back cortex was active.HM and Clive Wearing both had brain damage that affected episodic memory but not semantic or procedural memory. Clive could still play piano.

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43
Q

2 Weaknesses of Episodic and Semantic Memory

A

Squire and Zole - suggested that the medial temporal lobe is used for both episodic and semantic memory.Tulving does suggest that episodic memory relies on semantic memory, which goes against his own theory that they are separate.

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44
Q

What does Bartlett say memory is constructed from? (reconstructive memory)

A

memories we have previously experienced| aka schemas

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45
Q

Why is eye witness testiomony not always reliable?

A

schemas may distort or adapt our memories in order to make them fit in

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46
Q

What are schemas created from?

A

past experiences| social/cultural norms

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47
Q

What is rationalisation? (reconstructive memory)

A

when we make things make sense to us and fit into our schemas, we might miss things out to do this.

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48
Q

What is confabulation? (reconstructive memory)

A

When we add bits from previous experiences into the memory to make sense of it.

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49
Q

2 strengths of reconstructive memory

A

Bartlett - found that ppts rationalised and changed bits of ‘War of Ghosts’ to make sense to them. Supports as it shows they changed bits to fit in with their schemas. Eg canoes to boats, seal hunting to fishingAllport and Postman - found that when ppts were asked to recall details of a picture, ppts tended to say a black man was holding the razor. Supports as they changed bits to fit their schemas and society at the time (high racism)

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50
Q

2 weaknesses of reconstructive memory

A

Wynn and Logie - asked students to recall a real event that happened earlier on in the year and found the memories were resistant to change over the year.’War of Ghosts’ involves an unusual story that does not make sense to ppts. Argued that they will alter it so it makes sense as they retell the story.

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51
Q

What is dyslexia?

A

A reading disorder defined as a problem to learning to recognise and decoded printed words at a level that would be expected of the individual’s age.

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52
Q

What % of children does dyslexia affect?

A

3-6% (sometime estimated at 10%)| More prevalent in boys

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53
Q

How does dyslexia link to memory?

A

People with dyslexia have: a poor auditory working memory (hard to keep all letter sounds in their phonological loop)a poor verbal short term memory (hard to repeat unfamiliar vocab and remember information presented verbally)

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54
Q

2 strengths of the cognitive explanation of dyslexia

A

Alloway et al - investigate 46 children (6-11) with a reading disability, found they showed short term working memory deficits that could cause the problem.Smith-Spark et al - found that adults with dyslexia had unimpaired spatial working memory but impaired verbal working memory.

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55
Q

2 weaknesses of the cognitive explanation of dyslexia

A

It is difficult to establish exactly what verbal memory plays in causing dyslexia because people with dyslexia present a range of sensory impairments in both auditory and visual systems.Dyslexia exists with other learning disabilities. Makes it difficult to isolate phonological issues as a reason for reading impairments.

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56
Q

What was the aim of experiment 1 (Baddeley)?

A

To investigate whether long term memory was like short term memory.To investigate whether acoustically similar words in LTM would lead to more memory impairment than semantically similar words in LTM.

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57
Q

Describe the sample of experiment 1 (Baddeley)

A

young servicemenoriginally 78 ppts but after a hearing test only 75 remained

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58
Q

Describe the lists of words used in experiment 1 (Baddeley)

A

4 lists (A, B, C, D)List A - acoustically similarList B - acoustically dissimilar (control)List C - semantically similarList D - semantically dissimilar (control)

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59
Q

What group design was used in Baddeley’s studies?

A

independent groups

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60
Q

Describe the procedure of experiment 1 (Baddeley)

A
  • Words were presented on a tape recorder at 3 sec intervals- ppts had 40 secs to write down as many words in the correct order- The words were in front of them but in the wrong order- This was repeated 4 times
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61
Q

Describe the retest section used in all 3 experiments (Baddeley)

A
  • Ppts spent 20mins (15 mins for experiment 3) doing an intervening task to prevent the use of STM (8 numbers presented at 1sec intervals, 8secs to write in correct order)- After 20 mins, ppts had to write as many words as they could remember in the correct order (words still in front of them)- Unaware that they would have this retest
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62
Q

What were the results of experiment 1 (Baddeley)?

A
  • Acoustically dissimilar words were better recalled than acoustically similar words- Baddeley reported that the difference in forgetting between acoustically similar and dissimilar words as significant-No significant difference in recall between semantically similar words and semantically dissimilar words
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63
Q

What was the conclusion of experiment 1 (Baddeley)?

A

Acoustic similarity led to less recall but not semantic similarityAcoustic similarity showed almost no forgetting, but the 3 other lists did

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64
Q

What was the aim of experiment 2 (Baddeley)?

A

To block out the use of STM in semantically similar conditions (C) so that it matched acoustically similar conditions (A) where ppts had difficulties with STM.

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65
Q

Describe the sample of experiment 2 (Baddeley)

A

Housewives from Applied Psychology Research Unit subject pannel in Cambridge Originally 116 ppts but after hearing test only 110 remained

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66
Q

Describe the lists of words used in experiment 2 (Baddeley)

A

2 lists (A, C)List A - acoustically similarList C - semantically similar

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67
Q

What were the 3 conditions used in experiment 2 (Baddeley)?

A

Condition X: Same as experiment 1 but with only list A and CCondition Y: An interference task between the presentation of the words and the recall (x4) followed by the same 20 min intervening take and retestCondition Z: An interference task after each recall (x4) followed by the same 20 min intervening task and retest

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68
Q

What were the results of experiment 2 (Baddeley)?

A

-Acoustically similar words in conditions X and Y had no forgetting.- Semantically similar words had the worst recall in condition Y.- In semantically similar words, X did significantly better than Y

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69
Q

What was the conclusion of experiment 2 (Baddeley)?

A

Showed that the way of testing in experiment 1 did affect the learning phase because the STM was not blocked equally across all conditions.

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70
Q

What was the aim of experiment 3 (Baddeley)?

A

To test the original question about the role of acoustic and semantic factors in LTM, this time with the STM properly controlled for.

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71
Q

Describe the sample of experiment 3 (Baddeley)

A

A mixed group of females and males from the Applied Psychology Research Unit subject panel 72 ppts

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72
Q

Describe the lists of words used in experiment 3 (Baddeley)

A

4 lists (A, B, C, D) - Condition Y was used in all groupsList A - acoustically similarList B - acoustically dissimilar (control)List C - semantically similarList D - semantically dissimilar (control)

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73
Q

What was the condition used in experiment 3 (Baddeley)?

A

Condition Y: An interference task between the presentation of the words and the recall (x4) followed by a 15 min intervening task and then the retest

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74
Q

Describe the procedure of experiment 3 (Baddeley)?

A
  • Words were presented by a slide projector and were visible for 3 secs each- Ppts were allowed 1 min to write down the 10 words in the correct order (had them in front of them still)- Ther was a 15 min intervening task of self paced digit copying followed by the retest
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75
Q

What were the results of experiment 3 (Baddeley)?

A

-No significant difference between recall or retest of List A and List B (Acoustic)- Semantically similar condition (C) had worse recall than semantically dissimilar words (D)- Overall recall was poorer for semantically similar words compared to semantically dissimilar words during learning and retest

76
Q

What was the conclusion of experiment 3 (Baddeley)?

A

LTM uses mainly semantic encodingSTM uses mainly acoustic encodingThe use of STM is important to learn semantically similar words

77
Q

What was the overall conclusion of Baddeley’s studies?

A

Both acoustically similar and semantically similar lists showed successful recall in LTM, showing the LTM is not the same as STM in regard to acoustically similar words leading to more memory impairment.LTM uses mainly semantic encodingSTM uses mainly acoustic encodingLTM and STM do work together and not seperately

78
Q

Evaluate the generalisability of Baddeley’s studies

A

Strengths:Large sample size - exp 1, 2 and 3Not androcentric - exp 3Weaknesses:ethnocentric - exp 2androcentric - exp 1 and 2

79
Q

Evaluate the reliability of Baddeley’s studies

A

Strengths:Standardised procedure - exp 1, 2 and 3Controls - exp 1 and 2

80
Q

Evaluate the application of Baddeley’s studies

A

Exp 3 - Can be applied to revision as results show LTM was not good with semantically similar information and so when revising you should revise different subjects instead of continuously revising similar subjects.

81
Q

Evaluate the validity of Baddeley’s studies

A

Weaknesses:ecological validity - exp 1, 2 and 3task validity - exp 1, 2 and 3

82
Q

Evaluate the ethics of Baddeley’s studies

A

Weaknesses:No informed consent as ppts did not know about the retest. - exp 1, 2 and 3But can be justified as it may have affected their results making it less valid.

83
Q

What was the aim of Steyvers and Hemmer?

A

To investigate the interaction between episodic and prior knowledge (Semantic) in naturalistic environments

84
Q

Describe the sample for the prior expectations section of Steyvers and Hemmer

A

Random sample22 pptsFrom an experimental participant pool and the University of California, Irvine.

85
Q

Describe the procedure of the prior expectations section of Steyvers and Hemmer

A
  • Ppts were asked to list things they would expect to see in 5 scenes: office, kitchen, hotel, dining scene and an urban scene.- They had at least 1 min for each scene- They had to enter them onto a computer
86
Q

Describe the procedure of the perception section of Steyvers and Hemmer

A
  • A separate group of 22 ppts were shown 25 images of the 5 scenes.- They had to name all the objects they could see in the scenes.
87
Q

Describe the sample of the experimental memory condition section of Steyvers and Hemmer

A

49 more ppts were randomly selected from the same experimental participant pool at the University of California. They had not participated before.

88
Q

Describe the procedure of the experimental memory condition section of Steyvers and Hemmer

A
  • 2 sets of 5 were created (1 image of each scene in each set)- Ppts were only shown 1 set to avoid carry-over effects- Ppts were shown the images for either 2 or 10 seconds- Ppts were asked to carry out a free recall of objects they remembered from each scene in their own time.- Responses were normalised to remove plurals or additional info (eg colour, size)
89
Q

What were the results of Steyvers and Hemmer?

A
  • Incorrect recall of highly probable objects was only 9%- 91% of ppts correctly recalled the high probability objects- Incorrect recall of low probability items was 18%- Overall, when presented with naturalistic scenes memory was quite accurate (always above 80%)- Actual recall was much higher suggesting episodic memory played a significant role in recall.
90
Q

What was the conclusion of Steyvers and Hemmer?

A

In recall of naturalistic scenes, prior knowledge (semantic) can contribute to accurate recall in episodic memory tasks.Prior research tends to be unrepresentative of everyday recall.A more ecologically valid approach benefits recall.

91
Q

Evaluate the generalisability of Steyvers and Hemmer

A

Strengths:Large sample sizeRandom sample methodWeaknesses:EthnocentricSample bias - all students

92
Q

Evaluate the reliability of Steyvers and Hemmer

A

Strengths:Standardised procedureControls

93
Q

Evaluate the validity of Steyvers and Hemmer

A

Strengths:Task validity - naturalistic scenesWeaknesses:Ecological Validity - lab

94
Q

What was removed from Henry Molaison?

A

Hippocampus was removed bilaterally in 1953

95
Q

Why was Henry Molaison’s hippocampus removed?

A

To try and treat severe epilepsy

96
Q

Who performed the surgery on HM?

A

William Scoville

97
Q

What did the removal of HM’s hippocampus cause?

A

Anterograde amnesia

98
Q

What are experiments the only research method to do?

A

The only research method that detrmine cause and effect.

99
Q

What is a lab experiment?

A

An experiment conducted in a controlled, artificial environment.IV is manipulated DV is measuredeg Baddeley

100
Q

What is a field experiment?

A

An experiment that takes place in a natural setting.IV is manipulatedDV is measuredeg Sherif et al - Robber’s Cave

101
Q

Strengths of Lab experiments

A

Reliable - removes the potential for extraneous variablesValidity - Gives a level of control over variables to achieve a more scientific approach

102
Q

Weaknesses of Lab experiments

A

Ecological Validity Validity - Demand CharacteristicsValidity - Experimenter Effects

103
Q

Strengths of Field Experiments

A

Ecological validity| Validity - No demand characteristics

104
Q

Weaknesses of Field Experiments

A

Reliability - extraneous variables| Ethics - No consent, right to withdraw

105
Q

What is an independent variable?

A

A variable that is manipulated or changed by the researcher in order to demonstrate a difference between the experimental conditions.

106
Q

What is a dependent variable?

A

A variable that is measured or the result of the experiment. Measure any changes that occur due to the IV.Allows causality to be established (cause and effect)

107
Q

What is operationalisation?

A

Stating exactly what the independent variable is and exactly what is measured by the dependent variable.

108
Q

What does operationalisation increase within the experiment?

A

Objectivity| Reliability

109
Q

What is a hypothesis?

A

A prediction of what will happen in the investigation based on previous knowledge, research or theory.

110
Q

What is an experimental/alternative hypothesis?| What are the 2 types?

A

A prediction for which we know the likely outcome.DirectionalNon-Directional

111
Q

What is a Directional (one-tailed) hypothesis?

A

A hypothesis when we are certain of a specific outcome.Strong evidence to suggest the outcome may happen.(eg Males will gain higher grades in the maths exam than females)

112
Q

What is a Non-Directional (two-tailed) hypothesis?

A

A hypothesis when we are not certain of the specific outcome.There are conflicting theories or a lack of relevant evidence.(eg There will be a difference in maths exam grades between females and males)

113
Q

What is a Null Hypothesis?

A

A default prediction (a researcher can fall back on)When the difference or relationship is too small or insignificant to be due to anything other than chance variables.(eg There will be no difference in the length of time spent purring by cats that are fed tinned food or dry food)

114
Q

What is the aim of an experiment?

A

A general statement about what area or topic is being researched.

115
Q

What is independent group design?

A

When the ppts are divided into groups and are only involved in one of the experimental conditions.

116
Q

Strengths of independent group design

A

Less likely to guess the aim of the investigation - lower chance of demand characteristics or expectancy effects

117
Q

Weaknesses of independent group design

A

Need to recruite more people Individual differences or participant variables - make comparisons hard and may affect the validityTo control for individual differences - randomly allocating ppts

118
Q

What is repeated measures design?

A

When all ppts take part in all conditions of the experiment.

119
Q

Strengths of repeated measures design

A

Removes issues of individual differences fewer ppts are needed - more economical

120
Q

Weaknesses of repeated measures design

A

Higher chance of demand characteristics

121
Q

What is matched pair design?

A

When different ppts are assigned to each condition but they are matched on characteristics that are important to the study.Usually done through pre-testing and researching the lives/backgrounds of all the ppts

122
Q

Strengths of matched pair design

A

More reliable - comparison| differences are more likely to be due to IV so causation can be established

123
Q

Weaknesses of matched pair design

A

Very difficult to match ppts on all possible characteristics Time ConsumingHave to cut some ppts out as they don’t match

124
Q

What is the Order Effect?

A

When the performance of ppts in one condition is influenced by the previous conditions of the experiment. Includes practise (may become better as have learnt it in the condition before) and fatigue effects (become tired and perform worse)

125
Q

How can order effects be controlled for?

A

Counterbalancing RandomisationLeaving a time gap between completing conditions

126
Q

What is counterbalancing?

A

Involves the ppts being placed in 2 groups but all ppts still do all conditions.Group 1 does condition A and then BGroup 2 does condition B and then AA more complex way can be used (ABBA) and the mean for the conditions are used.

127
Q

What is randomisation?

A

Involves selecting at random which of the conditions of the experiment a ppts does first. Can be done by picking names out a hat.

128
Q

What are extraneous variables?

A

Factors (such as situational and ppts variables) that may have an unwanted effect on the dependant variable.

129
Q

What is a confounding variable?

A

When an extraneous variable is not controlled for and therefore does have an influence on the DV, making it look as if the effect was from the IV.

130
Q

What is a situational variable?

A

Types of extraneous variables that is found in the environment in which the study is conducted.eg light, noise, temperature, other people, disturbances, time of day etc

131
Q

What is a participant variable?

A

Types of extraneous variables where the ppts may affect the results of the study.eg intelligence, motivation, personality, experience, age, skills etc

132
Q

What is being obejctive?

A

The need to be impartial and judgement free.Cognitive psychologists would agree that we can’t objectively measure mental processes, but we can objectively observe the data produced by experiments.

133
Q

What is internal validity?

A

How well the procedure of a study establishes a causal relationship between the IV and DV.

134
Q

What is construct validity?

A

A type of internal validity.How well the measure of a behaviour is being used is a useful indicator of what is supposed to be studied.eg recall of a previously learned list is not good to study episodic memory as they may draw on semantic memory

135
Q

What is predictive validity?

A

A type of internal validity.The extent to which the performance on the measure can predict future performance on a similar criterion. eg if an intelligence test can accurately predict future academic success, then it has predictive validity

136
Q

What is external validity?

A

How well research finding can be genaralised beyond the study itself to other situations or populations.

137
Q

What is ecological validity?

A

A type of external validity.The extent to which the place the research was natural.

138
Q

What is task validity?

A

A type of external validity.How realistic the task carried out in the experiment is.

139
Q

What is population validity?

A

A type of external validity.The extent to which research findings apply to other populations than those used in the smaple.

140
Q

What is the experimenter effect?

A

The way an experimenter may influence the outcome of an experiment.such as The Hawthorne Effect

141
Q

What are demand characteristics?

A

When the ppts guess the aim of the experiment and change their behaviour to meet the expectations of the experimenter or to give the opposite results that they think the experimenter wants.

142
Q

What is a single-blind procedure?

A

Where the ppts are unaware of the study aim.Controls for demand characteristics.

143
Q

What is a double-blind procedure?

A

Where neither the ppts or researcher who carries out the experiment knows the aim of the study.Controls for experimenter effects.

144
Q

What is random sampling?

A

Everyone in the target population have an equal chance of being selected.

145
Q

Strengths of random sampling

A

More generalisable - low bias

146
Q

Weaknesses of random sampling

A

Can’t 100% certain that the sample is representative of the target population.Difficult to include all the population for sampling - some may be unavailable or data protection means they can’t be accessed

147
Q

What is Stratified sampling?

A

All the relevant groups within the target population are proportionally represented within the sample.

148
Q

Strengths of Stratified sampling

A

All relevant groups will have some representationLimits the amount of ppts needed - keep costs low

149
Q

Weaknesses of Stratified sampling

A

It is difficult to know how many of each group is need to represent the T.P accurately - some may be over or under represented

150
Q

What is Opportunity sampling?

A

Researcher takes advantage of whoever’s available at the time/place of testing.

151
Q

Strengths of Opportunity sampling

A

More ethical - can see if people are willingEasy and faster

152
Q

Weaknesses of Opportunity sampling

A

May not be representative of the target populationResearcher bias - pick people who know/ are comfortable talking to

153
Q

What is Volunteer sampling?

A

Researcher puts out an advert and people that want to participate come forward.

154
Q

Strengths of Volunteer sampling

A

EthicalPpts more likely to comply and follow instructions - less issues with non-compliance

155
Q

Weaknesses of Volunteer sampling

A

Bias - as volunteers are in the minority (most people wouldn’t volunteer)May take a long time to get enough ppts

156
Q

Strengths of mean

A

Most sensitive and powerful as it uses all the scores

157
Q

Weaknesses of mean

A

Extreme scores can skew the score - may not be representativeMay not be an actual score (eg 0.5 of something that can’t be divided)

158
Q

Strengths of median

A

Not affected by extreme score

159
Q

Weaknesses of median

A

If there’s a small data set it may not be useful - may not give accurate representationCan take a long time to figure out with large sets of data

160
Q

Strengths of mode

A

Easy to calculate| Can be used on non-numerical data

161
Q

Weaknesses of mode

A

If there are more than 2 modes it becomes meaningless

162
Q

Strengths of range

A

Easy to calculate

163
Q

Weaknesses of range

A

Can be affected by extreme scoresDoes not tell us if the spread of data is normal or skewed

164
Q

Strengths of standard deviation

A

More accurate as it uses all scores

165
Q

Weaknesses of standard deviation

A

Hard to calculate manually

166
Q

What is the observed value?

A

The value that has been worked out from the ppts’ results that is compared to the critical value (on the table at front of paper)

167
Q

What is a Type 1 error?

A

If you reject the null hypothesis and it is actually trueHappens when the level of significance is too lenient

168
Q

What is a Type 2 error?

A

If you keep the null hypothesis when your experiment did work. (when there is a significant difference)Happen when the level of significance is too harsh

169
Q

What level of probability do we start at?

A

p <= 0.05The probability the results are due to chance is equal to or less than 5%(unless we’re trying to disprove someone else’s results. Then we start at p <= 0.01)

170
Q

What are the 4 levels of measurement/types of data?

A

NominalOrdinalIntervalRatio

171
Q

What is Nominal data?

A

Most basic level of measurementUsed when data is put into tally charts/categoriesOnly tells us how many ppts picked each optionDoesn’t give an individual score for each ppts

172
Q

What is Ordinal data?

A

Used when data can be ordered eg 1st, 2nd, 3rdCan’t tell the gap between 1st and 2nd etcAlways used with questionnairesGives us an individual score for each ppts

173
Q

What is Interval data?

A

The distance between each score has a meaning and equal value.eg gap between 5-10cm is same as 20-25cm0 is just another number on the scale, it does not mean there is nothingeg 0 degrees c doesn’t mean there’s no temperature

174
Q

What is Ratio data?

A

The distance between each score has meaning and an equal value.However, 0 does mean nothing.eg 0 seconds to do something means it took no time

175
Q

Which test should you use? :It is NOT an experimentIt uses ORDINAL data

A

Spearman’s Rho

176
Q

Which test should you use? :It is an experimentIt uses REPEATED MEASURESIt uses ORDINAL data

A

Wilcoxon Test

177
Q

Which test should you use? :It is an experimentIt uses INDEPENDANT GROUPSIt uses ORDINAL data

A

Mann Whitney U Test

178
Q

Which test should you use? :It is an experimentIt uses INDEPENDANT GROUPS It uses NOMINAL data

A

Chi Square

179
Q

What is the key question for cognitive psychology?

A

Is eye witness testimony reliable?

180
Q

Are eyewitnesses seen as credible to juries?

A

Yes, they may rely on eye witness testimony more than forensic evidence.

181
Q

In the 1990s, how many convictions were overturned?

A

239 convictions| 73% of these convictions were due to eye witness testimony

182
Q

How much does a prisoner cost per year?

A

£40,000

183
Q

What can affect eye witness testimony’s reliability?

A

Past experiencesSchemas Leading questions

184
Q

2 strengths of using eye witness testimony

A

Yuille and Cutshall - carried out a study on witnesses to a real shooting including asking leading questions about the colour of a panel on a car. They found that leading questions did not affect the accuracy of the ppts recall. However, this was carried out 5 months after incident.Macleod - studied 379 reports of eye witnesses to assaults and found that there was no difference in the accuracy of the reports between those who were physically hurt in the incident and those who weren’t physically hurt.

185
Q

2 weaknesses of eye witness testimony

A

The presence of weapons is thought to affect the accuracy of witnesses’ recall. Witnesses tend to focus on the weapon and have less attention and processing to spend on other factors such as the perpetrators face.Pickel - found that it was not the presence of a weapon but the unusualness of the weapon that affected witnesses’ recall. Ppts that saw a video of a man with a gun at a baseball match gave less accurate recall compared to those that saw a man at a shooting range with a gun.

Edexcel A-Level Psychology (Paper 1) (4 decks)

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