cognitive psych finals Flashcards
1
Q
the multiple-factor approach
A
distributed representation
use factors beyond sensory and function to determine how concepts are divided within a category
Hoffman & Ralph
160 items, rate each item on features such as (color, taste, motion, sound, etc)
- animals were more highly associated with motion and color
- artifacts were more highly associated with performed actions
- mechanical devices (machines, vehicles) and musical instruments show an overlap, occupy a middle ground
animals have a crowding effect: animals tend to share many properties (eyes, legs, mouth, ability to move)
- propose that those with category-specific impairment just find it harder to differentiate bc animals are very similar
2
Q
conceptual knowledge
A
knowledge that enables us to recognize objects and events and to make inferences about their properties
3
Q
concept
A
mental representation of a class or individual, categories of objects, events, and abstract ideas
concepts provide rules for creating categories
4
Q
category
A
includes all possible examples of a particular concept
5
Q
definitional approach to categorization
A
- decide whether something is a member of a category by determining whether a particular object meets the definition of a category
- the problem is not all members of everyday categories have the same features
6
Q
- decide whether something is a member of a category by determining whether a particular object meets the definition of a category
- the problem is not all members of everyday categories have the same features
A
definitional approach to categorization
7
Q
Wittgenstein
A
proposed the idea of family resemblance, allows for some variation within a category
8
Q
proposed the idea of family resemblance, allows for some variation within a category
A
Wittgenstein
9
Q
prototype approach
A
membership is determined by comparing the object to a prototype that represents the category
10
Q
membership is determined by comparing the object to a prototype that represents the category
A
prototype approach
11
Q
prototype
A
- typical member of the category, based on an average of members of a category
- not an actual member of the category but is an average representation of the category
12
Q
high vs low typicality
A
high > closely resembles the prototype
low > does not closely resemble the prototype
13
Q
effects of prototypicality
A
- family resemblance
- typicality (people react rapidly to members of the category that are “typical” of the category)
- naming (prototypical objects are more likely to be named first)
- priming (prototypical objects are affected more by priming, green color example)
14
Q
Smith & coworkers
A
[sentence verification technique]
- determine how rapidly people could answer questions about an object’s category (eg. is apple a fruit vs is pomegranate a fruit)
- participants responded faster for objects that had high prototypicality, typicality effect
15
Q
[sentence verification technique]
- determine how rapidly people could answer questions about an object’s category (eg. is apple a fruit vs is pomegranate a fruit)
- participants responded faster for objects that had high prototypicality, typicality effect
A
Smith & coworkers
16
Q
typicality effect
A
participants responded faster for objects that had high prototypicality
17
Q
participants responded faster for objects that had high prototypicality
A
typicality effect
18
Q
sentence verification technique
A
determine how rapidly people could answer questions about an object’s category (eg. is apple a fruit vs is pomegranate a fruit)
19
Q
test how prototypical objects are affected more by priming
A
Rosch
- prime a word (”green”), show 2 primary green, or 2 light green, or 2 different primary colors, participants were asked if the colors are the same, faster response to the primary green pair (because that is the most typical green we are aware of, thus would imagine in our minds)
20
Q
Rosch
A
prime a word (”green”), show 2 primary green, or 2 light green, or 2 different primary colors, participants were asked if the colors are the same, faster response to the primary green pair (because that is the most typical green we are aware of, thus would imagine in our minds)
21
Q
prime a word (”green”), show 2 primary green, or 2 light green, or 2 different primary colors, participants were asked if the colors are the same, faster response to the primary green pair (because that is the most typical green we are aware of, thus would imagine in our minds)
A
Rosch
22
Q
exemplar approach
A
determining whether an object is similar to other objects by comparing an object to an exemplar in the category
23
Q
determining whether an object is similar to other objects by comparing an object to an exemplar in the category
A
exemplar approach
24
Q
exemplar
A
actual members of the category that a person has encountered in the past
25
benefits of exemplar approach
- able to take into account individual cases
- works well for more variable categories like 'games' > more difficult to think of a prototype for 'game' but can think of many exemplars
26
prototypes vs exemplars
- people may use both approaches, initially, we average exemplars into prototypes, then exemplar info becomes stronger
- we generally know what is the prototype but we know our own specific exemplar the best
27
Collins and Quillian's hierarchical approach
- network consists of nodes that are connected by links
- each node is a category or concept
- hierarchical model because it contains levels that arrange to be more specific as it gets to the bottom
- to know more about a specific object, you move up the link, can tell different properties
- these properties are stored at a higher-level node to reduce storage space (bc most of these properties apply to more than one object)
28
cognitive economy
- storing shared properties just once at a higher-level node
- makes the network more efficient but this means overgeneralizing certain objects
- exceptions will be added to lower-level nodes, specific to that object only
29
how to test the accuracy of hierarchical model?
- measure time taken to retrieve info about a concept
| - this is determined by the distance between nodes, further the distance, longer it takes
30
spreading activation
is the activity that spreads out along any link that is connected to an activated node, can influence priming
31
Meyer & Schvaneveldt
```
[lexical decision task]
tasked to answer if the string of letters is a word or non-word
trials had
a. 2 nonwords
b. 1 nonword-1 word
c. 2 words (not related)
d. 2 words (closely related)
faster response for d. bc retrieving one word from memory triggered a spread of activation to other nearby locations in a network
```
32
```
[lexical decision task]
tasked to answer if the string of letters is a word or non-word
trials had
a. 2 nonwords
b. 1 nonword-1 word
c. 2 words (not related)
d. 2 words (closely related)
faster response for d. bc retrieving one word from memory triggered a spread of activation to other nearby locations in a network
```
Meyer & Schvaneveldt
33
criticisms of the hierarchical model
- could not explain typicality effect
- cognitive economy -- some people store specific info at the node for the object not one level higher
- some people can reply faster to nodes further away (more vague) (eg. is pig a mammal vs is pig an animal, ppl answer to animal faster but it is a further node)
34
network models of categorization
- hierarchical approach
| - connectionist approach
35
connectionism
an approach to creating computer models for representing cognitive processes
36
an approach to creating computer models for representing cognitive processes
connectionism
37
connectionist model
parallel distributed processing (PDP)
38
what is parallel distributed processing (PDP)
- a connectionist model
- made up of units
- input, output, hidden units
- connection weights (thicker means stronger activation)
- activation of units depend on:
signal that originates from input unit
connection weights throughout the network
39
McClelland & Rogers
coined the idea of a connectionist network
40
coined the idea of a connectionist network
McClelland & Rogers
41
how to train a connectionist network
- in an untrained network, a lot of wrong units will be activated due to the spreading activation and incorrect differences in weights
- learning process occurs when the erroneous responses in the property units cause an error signal to be sent back through the network, by a process called back propagation
- through the training process, learn to assign different weights, so that activation is more accurate next time and only activates the proper units
42
benefits of a connectionist model
- the operation of connectionist networks is not totally disrupted by damage
- connectionist networks can explain generalization of learning
43
connectionist networks can explain generalization of learning
- similar concepts have similar patterns
- training a system to recognize one concept also provides info about another related concept
- this is similar to the way we learn about concepts we have never seen before
44
graceful degradation
disruption of performance occurs only gradually as parts of the system are damaged
45
disruption of performance occurs only gradually as parts of the system are damaged
graceful degradation
46
4 proposals about how concepts are represented in the brain
1. the sensory-functional approach
2. the multiple-factor approach
3. the semantic category approach
4. the embodied approach
47
the sensory-functional approach
- ability to differentiate living things and artifacts (non-living things) depends on a memory system that distinguishes sensory attributes (fur pattern) and a system that distinguishes functions (how is a tool used)
- studied category-specific impairment patients: impairment in which they had lost the ability to identify one type of object but retained the ability to identify other types of objects
48
- ability to differentiate living things and artifacts (non-living things) depends on a memory system that distinguishes sensory attributes (fur pattern) and a system that distinguishes functions (how is a tool used)
- studied category-specific impairment patients: impairment in which they had lost the ability to identify one type of object but retained the ability to identify other types of objects
sensory-functional approach
49
rejections of sensory-functional approach
- patient with sensory deficit (performed poorly on perceptual tests) better at identifying animals than artifacts
- patients are able to identify mechanical devices but not for other artifacts, artifacts are not a single homogeneous category
50
Hoffman & Ralph
160 items, rate each item on features such as (color, taste, motion, sound, etc)
- animals were more highly associated with motion and color
- artifacts were more highly associated with performed actions
- mechanical devices (machines, vehicles) and musical instruments show an overlap, occupy a middle ground
51
160 items, rate each item on features such as (color, taste, motion, sound, etc)
- animals were more highly associated with motion and color
- artifacts were more highly associated with performed actions
- mechanical devices (machines, vehicles) and musical instruments show an overlap, occupy a middle ground
Hoffman & Ralph
52
the semantic category approach
there are specific neural circuits in the brain for some specific categories
- Mahon & Caramazza proposed that there are a limited number of categories that are innately determined bc of their importance for survival (eg face, place, body)
- Huth proposed the category map, indicates where specific words activate in the cortex (eg. words associated with violence at the back of the brain)
53
Mahon & Caramazza
proposed that there are a limited number of categories that are innately determined bc of their importance for survival (eg face, place, body)
54
proposed that there are a limited number of categories that are innately determined bc of their importance for survival (eg face, place, body)
Mahon & Caramazza
55
proposed the category map, indicates where specific words activate in the cortex (eg. words associated with violence at the back of the brain)
Huth
56
Huth
proposed the category map, indicates where specific words activate in the cortex (eg. words associated with violence at the back of the brain)
57
the embodied approach
- states that our knowledge of concepts is based on reactivation of sensory and motor processes that occur when we interact with the object
- Hauk measured participants' brain activity using fMRI under 2 conditions
(1) as participants did actual movements and
(2) as participants read action words of such movements
activation is more extensive for actual movements
but activation caused by reading occurs in approximately the same areas of the brain
58
Hauk
measured participants' brain activity using fMRI under 2 conditions
(1) as participants did actual movements
(2) as participants read action words of such movements
activation is more extensive for actual movements
but activation caused by reading occurs in approximately the same areas of the brain
59
measured participants' brain activity using fMRI under 2 conditions
(1) as participants did actual movements
(2) as participants read action words of such movements
activation is more extensive for actual movements
but activation caused by reading occurs in approximately the same areas of the brain
Hauk
60
semantic somatotopy
correspondence between words related to specific parts of the body and the location of brain activity
61
correspondence between words related to specific parts of the body and the location of brain activity
semantic somatotopy
62
rejections of the embodied approach
- patient AA: suffered a stroke, impaired physical motion, but had no trouble recognizing objects
- not well suited to explain our knowledge of abstract concepts
63
TRANSCRANIAL MAGNETIC STIMULATION (TMS)
- temporarily disrupt the functioning of a particular area of the brain by applying a pulsating magnetic field using a stimulating coil placed over the person's skull
- if the particular behavior is disrupted by the pulses, conclude that the disrupted area of the brain is involved in that behavior
64
hub and spoke
hub (main, integrates the info from other brain areas), spoke (specialized brain areas)
hub causes general deficits
spoke causes specific deficits
65
anterior temporal lobe (ATL)
a hub that plays a role in integrating info
66
family resemblance
idea that things in a particular category resemble one another in a number of ways
67
Rosch & Mervis
- concluded that there is a strong relationship between family resemblance and prototypicality
- when an item's characteristics have a large amount of overlap with the charcateristics of many other items in a catergory, this means that the family resemblance of these items is high
68
Mervis et al.
when subjects were asked to list as many objects in a category as possible, they tend to list the most prototyipcal members of the category first
69
when subjects were asked to list as many objects in a category as possible, they tend to list the most prototyipcal members of the category first
Mervis et al.
70
hierarchical organization
a kind of organization in which larger, more general categories are divided into smaller, more specific ones, creating a number of levels of categories
71
Rosch's approach: basic level categories
(1) global -- can only name a few descriptors
(2) basic -- name quite a few features of basic objects
(3) specific -- can name a lot of features but this info is not v useful
72
Tanaka & Taylor
showed pictures of objects, participants were experts or non-experts
- experts (eg of birds) named specific objects (birds) when they saw a picture of it
- non-expert simply said the basic level (bird)
73
showed pictures of objects, participants were experts or non-experts
- experts (eg of birds) named specific objects (birds) when they saw a picture of it
- non-expert simply said the basic level (bird)
Tanaka & Taylor
74
visual imagery
seeing in the absence of a visual stimulus
75
mental imagery
broader term that refers to the ability to re-create the sensory world in the absence of physical stimuli of all senses
76
Wundt
first person to apply scientific method into understanding the human mind
approach: structuralism -- elements "periodic table of the mind"
method: analytic introspection
- proposed that images were one of the three basic elements of consciousness (along with sensations and feelings)
- proposed that images accompany thought
77
imageless thought debate
the debate about whether thought is possible in the absence of images
78
Francis Galton
proposed that imagery is not required for thinking
79
proposed that imagery is not required for thinking
Francis Galton
80
Alan Paivio
proposed the idea that it is easier to remember concrete nouns that can be imagined vs abstract nouns through the technique of paired-associated learning
81
who proposed the technique of paired-associated learning
Alan Paivio
82
[Paired-Associated Learning]
- participants are presented with pairs of words
- during the test period, they are presented with the first word of each pair
- the task is to recall the paired word
83
conceptual peg hypothesis
concrete nouns create images that other words can hang onto and enhances memory for these words
84
[Mental Chronometry]
determining the amount of time needed to carry out various cognitive tasks (mental rotation of a geometric object to figure out if they were the same shape (supports spatial representation theory)
85
Shepard & Metzler
mental chronometry
86
mental chronometry
Shepard & Metzler
87
mental scanning
create mental images and then scan them in their minds
88
Kosslyn, mental scanning
- asked participants to memorize a picture of an object (eg a boat) and create an image of that object in their mind
- focus on one part of the boat, then asked to look for another part of the boat (to press the "true" button once they located it and "false" when they could not find it)
- proposed that it would take longer to locate a part of the boat if it was further away
89
- asked participants to memorize a picture of an object (eg a boat) and create an image of that object in their mind
- focus on one part of the boat, then asked to look for another part of the boat (to press the "true" button once they located it and "false" when they could not find it)
- proposed that it would take longer to locate a part of the boat if it was further away
Kosslyn
90
imagery debate
a debate about whether imagery is based on spatial mechanism or on mechanisms related to language
91
spatial representations
representations in which different parts if an image can be described as corresponding to specific locations in space
92
representations in which different parts if an image can be described as corresponding to specific locations in space
spatial representations
93
epiphenomenon
something that accompanies the real mechanism but is not actually part of the mechanism
94
Pylyshyn
- argued that just because we experience imagery as spatial, does not mean that the underlying representation is spatial
- proposed propositional representations
95
who proposed propositional representations
Pylyshyn
96
propositional representations
representations in which relationships can be represented by abstract symbols
97
representations in which relationships can be represented by abstract symbols
propositional representations
98
depictive representations
representations in which parts of the representation correspond to parts of the object
99
representations in which parts of the representation correspond to parts of the object
depictive representations
100
Kosslyn, mental walk task
- imagine you are walking toward a mental image of the animal
- takes longer to walk toward the smaller animal before the animal fills up the entire visual field
101
mental walk task
Kosslyn
102
rabbit and elephant vs rabbit and fly
when asked questions about details of the rabbit, faster response when the rabbit was larger in the visual field
103
Cheves Perky
asked participants to describe a banana, a faint image of a banana was projected in front of them, their descriptions matched the projection but no one realized there was a picture there
104
asked participants to describe a banana, a faint image of a banana was projected in front of them, their descriptions matched the projection but no one realized there was a picture there
Cheves Perky
105
method of loci
a method in which things to be remembered are placed at different locations in a mental image of a spatial layout
106
a method in which things to be remembered are placed at different locations in a mental image of a spatial layout
method of loci
107
pegword technique
involves imagery, associate items with concrete words
108
ways to use imagery to improve memory
1. method of loci - placing images at locations
| 2. peg word - associate image with words
109
[Paper Folding Test]
- Kozhevnikov
- saw a piece of folded paper, then pierced by a pencil
- imagine what the unfolded paper will look like from 5 options
- tested: spatial imagery
110
[Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire (VVIQ)]
- Kozhevnikov
- participants rated on a 5-point scale, the vividness of mental images they were asked to create
- tested: object imagery
111
object imagery
ability to image visual details, features of objects
112
spatial imagery
ability to image spatial relations
113
Kozhevnikov
- classified participants into visualizers and verbalizers
visualizers; test to measure 2 types of imagery: spatial & object
- spatial and object imagery are negatively correlated, if you are good at spatial, you are likely to not be that good at object
114
[Degraded Pictures Task]
a drawing hidden among a bunch of degraded lines (looks like disjointed scribbles, when you connect some of these lines they form an image of a drawing of something
- umbrella under the dots and lines
115
[Recording from Single Neurons in Humans]
- participants were patients with intractable epilepsy that couldn't be controlled by drugs, a possible cure is to remove the small area of the brain called the epileptic focus
- electrodes are implanted in the patients' brains and then monitored over a period of days, if there is a spontaneous seizure, it can help pinpoint the location of the focus
- apart from that, electrodes can record activity caused by cognitive actions such as perceiving, imaging, and remembering
116
Kreiman et al.
- measured neuron firing rate when object was presented (perceived) and when it was imagined (imagery)
- neuron fired in the same way, these are called imagery neurons
117
measured neuron firing rate when object was presented (perceived) and when it was imagined (imagery)
Kreimen et al.
118
Samuel Le Bihan
both perception and imagery activate in the visual cortex (imagery less activation)
119
who discovered that both perception and imagery activate in the visual cortex
Samuel Le Bihan
120
topographic map
- visual cortex is organized in which specific locations on a visual stimulus cause activity at specific locations in the visual cortex
- points next to each other on the stimulus cause activity at locations next to each other on the cortex
121
how are mental images of different sizes represented in the brain
- small images were concentrated at the back of the brain, as the images get bigger, it travels to the front of the visual cortex
- and this is similar for perception
122
findings from neuropsychological studies on visual imagery
1. removing part of the visual cortex decreases image size
2. problems with perceiving are accompanied by problems with imagery
3. there are dissociations between imagery and perception
123
unilateral neglect
- patient ignores objects in one half of the visual field
| - caused by damage to the parietal lobe
124
patient RM (visual imagery)
- normal perception but impaired imagery
- can recognize and draw objects but cannot draw from memory
- had trouble replying to questions that involved having to imagine something
125
- normal perception but impaired imagery
- can recognize and draw objects but cannot draw from memory
- had trouble replying to questions that involved having to imagine something
patient RM
126
patient CK (visual imagery)
- impaired perception but normal imagery
- suffered from visual agnosia, inability to visually recognize objects, could recognize parts of objects but could not integrate them into a meaningful whole
- able to draw from memory but when shown his drawings, he could not recognize what he drew
127
- impaired perception but normal imagery
- suffered from visual agnosia, inability to visually recognize objects, could recognize parts of objects but could not integrate them into a meaningful whole
- able to draw from memory but when shown his drawings, he could not recognize what he drew
patient CK
128
conclusions from the imagery debate
- perception occurs automatically when we look at
something, but imagery needs to be generated with some
effort
- perception is stable but imagery is fragile (can vanish without continued effort)
- harder to manipulate mental images
129
what is language?
- language is the idea that the ability to string sounds and words together opens the door to a world of communication
- language is a system of communication using sounds or symbols that enables us to express our feelings, thoughts, ideas, and experiences
130
human language
humans use a variety of signals which can be combined in countless ways, thus it makes human language creative
131
hierarchical nature of language
consists of a series of small components that can be combined to form larger units → words can form phrases, phrases form sentences, which form a component of a story
132
rule based nature of language
components can be arranged in certain ways (to make sense) but not others (adjective then noun followed by verb, not verb then noun and adjective)
133
universal need to communicate with language
- deaf children find ways to communicate even if no one there signs, use simple/novel sign language in the form of hand gestures
- all humans with normal capacities develop a language and learn to follow its complex rules, even though they are not fully aware of the rules (go by feels)
- there isn't a single culture without language
language development is similar across cultures (babbling, words, phrases, sentences)
- unique but the same (same in the way that every language has nouns, verbs, and grammar rules)
134
frontal lobe (Broca's area)
production of language
135
which part of the brain is in charge of the production of language
frontal lobe (Broca's area)
136
temporal lobe (Wernicke's area)
comprehension of language
137
which part of the brain is in charge of the comprehension of language
temporal lobe (Wernicke's area)
138
psycholinguistics
- psychological study of language
| - discover the psychological processes by which humans acquire and process language
139
lexicon
all the words we know, "mental dictionary"
140
all the words we know, "mental dictionary"
lexicon
141
meaning of language
semantics
142
semantics
meaning of language
143
lexical semantics
meaning of words
144
word frequency effect
- the fact that we respond more quickly to high-frequency words than to low-frequency words
- study shows a slow response to low-frequency words because readers need more time to access the meaning of the words
145
Pollak & Pickett
meaning of words are context-dependent
- words are more difficult to understand when taken out of context and presented alone
- record conversations of participants
- participants were presented with their own voice recordings but only isolated words
- cant identify the same words when the words were isolated
- shows that their ability to perceive words in conversations is aided by the context
146
complications in understanding words
1. word frequency effect
2. pronunciation
3. there are no silences between words in normal conversations
147
the ability to hear and understand spoken words is affected by
1. how frequently we have encountered a word in the past
2. the context in which the words appear
3. knowledge of statistical regularities of our language
4. knowledge of word meanings
148
speech segmentation
the perception of individual words even though there are often no pauses between words
149
lexical ambiguity
words can have more than one meaning
150
[Lexical Priming] Tanenhaus et al.
- task is to read the probe word 'flower', timed how fast it took to read
condition 1: she held a rose (flower) -------- faster
control: she held a post (flower)
condition 2: they all rose (flower) ----------- faster than control, not as fast as (1)
control: they all touched (flower)
- with 200ms delay, condition 2 took longer than control -- flower meaning of rose is gone, context provided by the sentence helps determine the meaning of the word, context exerts its influence after a slight delay
151
Lexical Priming of "rose" and "flower"
Tanenhaus et al.
152
biased dominance
when a word has more than one meaning and the meaning of one of the words occurs more frequently than the others
153
when a word has more than one meaning and the meaning of one of the words occurs more frequently than the others
biased dominance
154
balanced dominance
when a word has more than one meaning and the meanings of the words are equally likely
155
when a word has more than one meaning and the meanings of the words are equally likely
balanced dominance
156
syntax
structure of a sentence
157
structure of a sentence
syntax
158
parsing
consider how meaning is created by grouping of words into phrases, making sense of sentences
159
garden path sentences
- a sentence that begins to mean one thing, but as you read on, it end ups meaning something else
- leads to temporary ambiguity
160
late closure
when a person encounters a new word, the person's parsing mechanism assumes that this word is part of the current phrase, each word is added to the current phrase for as long as possible
161
when a person encounters a new word, the person's parsing mechanism assumes that this word is part of the current phrase, each word is added to the current phrase for as long as possible
late closure
162
who tested garden path method of parsing?
Frazier
163
constraint-based approach to parsing
- influence of word meaning -- the word can be used as a verb or adjective depending on the noun used
- influence of story context -- the horse raced past the barn fell
- influence of scene context -- apple on the towel in the box
- influence of memory load and prior experience with language -- subject & object-relative clause
164
visual world paradigm
- Tanenhaus
| - involves determining how info in a scene can influence how a sentence is processed (apple on the towel in the box)
165
influence of memory load and prior experience with language
main clause & embedded clause
- subject-relative clause: easier to understand if both clauses have the same subject (noun)
- object-relative clause: harder/longer to understand bc subject became the object in the embedded clause,
- > demands more of the reader's memory (higher memory load, slows down processing)
- > more complicated, subject switch to object later on
166
[Predicting what the boy will do] Altmann & Kamide
- picture of a boy in a playroom with toys around and a cake
- participants heard "the boy will move" and "the boy will eat"
- eye movement measured
"move": took 127msec after they heard "cake" to look at the cake
"eat" took -87msec = before they even heard "cake" they looked at the cake
167
[predicting what the boy will do study]
| - picture of a boy in a playroom with toys around and a cake
Altmann & Kamide
168
making inferences
determining what the text means by using our knowledge to go beyond the information provided by the text
169
Bransford & Johnson
had participants read a passage and tested them with another similar passage (with inferences added) to determine what they remembered, results show that people say yes they remembered that from the passage even though that piece of information was not explicitly mentioned but inferred from the passage
170
had participants read a passage and tested them with another similar passage (with inferences added) to determine what they remembered, results show that people say yes they remembered that from the passage even though that piece of information was not explicitly mentioned but inferred from the passage
Bransford & Johnson
171
narrative
text where there is a story
172
anaphoric inference
knowing what the pronoun refers to
173
instrument inference
know what tool was used even though it was not mentioned, but solely from the context and word (verb) choice
174
casual inference
making connections between 2 clauses (somewhat like cause-and-effect)
175
situation models
stimulates the perceptual and motor characteristics of the objects and actions in a story
we tend to create perceptions that match the situation as described in the sentence
176
given-new contract
- speaker should construct sentences so that they include 2 kinds of information
1. given information (info that the listener already knows of)
2. new information (info that listener has never heard before
- as the sentences progress, the new info from the prev sentence becomes the given info in the next sentence
177
common ground
mental knowledge and beliefs shared among conversational parties
178
Yule [referential communication task]
- info involves reference
- A and B have cards with them and have to identify the cards by describing it (the cards have random geometrical shapes on them, cannot just describe as a square or an apple
- but once they establish this shape and give it a name (looks like a duck etc) they keep referring to that shape and the convo flows smoothly
179
entrainment
the process of creating common ground and this results in synchronization between two parties
180
the process of creating common ground and this results in synchronization between two parties
entrainment
181
syntactic coordination
- following how other people speak (form their sentence structure)
- involves syntactic priming: one person primes with a sentence structure
- the other person in the convo follows the type of sentence structure when responding
- speakers are sensitive to the linguistic behavior of other speakers and adjust this behavior to match
- it reduces the computational load involved in creating a conversation because it is easier to copy the form of someone else’s sentence than it is to create your own from scratch
182
syntactic priming
one person primes the other with a sentence structure
183
phoneme
shortest segment of speech, that if changed, changes the meaning of the word
- sound of the letters, phonics
184
morphemes
smallest units of language that have definable meaning or grammatical function
- eg: -s, -ed, -ion, -ing
185
phoneme restoration effect
occurs when phonemes are perceived in speech when the sound of the phoneme is covered up by an extraneous noise
186
Warren [phoneme restoration effect]
- replace phoneme with a cough sound
- demonstrate top-down processing:
(1) "filling-in" missing phoneme based on context
(2) our knowledge of the meanings of words and the likely meanings of sentences affects speech perception
187
meaning dominance
when some meanings of words occur more frequently than others
188
when some meanings of words occur more frequently than others
meaning dominance
189
coherence
the representation of the text in a person's mind so that info from one part of the text is related to info in another part of the text
190
Zwann & coworkers
- subjects read a sentence that describes a situation involving an object
- indicate as quickly as possible whether a picture shows the object mentioned in the sentence
- reaction times were faster when the object in the picture matched the orientation and situation described
191
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
the nature of a culture’s language can affect the way people think
192
Winawer & coworkers
- Russian-speaking vs English-speaking subjects discrimination between different shades of blue
- Russian-speaking subjects responded more quickly when the two bottom squares were from different categories (according to their language they have specific names for those blue)
- this is because the Russian language distinguishes the different shades of blue
193
Russian-speaking vs English-speaking subjects discrimination between different shades of blue
Winawer & coworkers
194
cognitive psychology
- the study of mental processes
| - determining the characteristics and properties of the mind as well as how it operates
195
structuralism
- description of the contents of consciousness
- overall experience is determined by sensations, combinations of basic elements
- "periodic table of the mind"
196
analytic introspection
a technique whereby trained participants describe their experiences and thought processes in responses to a stimuli
197
problems with introspection
- only applies to conscious processing
- poor reliability between subjects
- subjective
- hard to relate to physiology
- made little progress in understanding the mind
198
john watson
behaviorism
- he rejects introspection as a method
- focuses on observable behavior
ignores those that are no observable
- parsimony important to him
- [Little Albert]
classical conditioning – pairing one stimulus with another (neutral stimulus) causes changes in the responses to the neutral stimulus
199
parsimony
the simplest explaination is the correct one
200
behaviorism
B.F. Skinner
- behavior is shaped by rewards and punishments
rewarded > increase in the action
punished > decrease in action
201
Skinner
behaviorism, operant conditioning
Behavior is strengthened by the presentation of positive reinforcers (e.g., food, social approval) or withdrawal of negative reinforcers (e.g., shock, social rejection)
202
challenges to behaviorism
Tolman; cognitive maps and rats
| rat learned the maze layout rather than the reward of food
203
Donders
simple reaction time vs choice reaction time
simple: flash of light and respond
choice: flash of light from left or right
- used RT as a behavioral measure
- diff in RT between simple and choice to indicate decision making time
(decision making time = choice RT - simple RT)
204
Ebbinghaus
proposed a quantitative measurement of mental processes
- Savings method to measure forgetting
- Forgetting occurs rapidly in the first 1-2 days after original learning
205
Tolman
Used behavior to infer mental processes; cognitive maps
| - rat maze
206
Chomsky
- Language Acquisition Device – language development is determined by an inborn biological program
- Language is a product of the way the mind is constructed, rather than a result of reinforcement
207
Cherry
- attention experiment
- When people focused on the attended message, they could hear the sounds of the unattended message but were unaware of the contents of that message
208
dichotic listening experiment
Cherry
- asked participants to focus on the message in one ear (attended ear) and repeat what was said (shadowing)
- participants could not report the contents of the message in the unattended ear (but could describe simple physical characteristics of the voice)
209
McCarthy
- introduced the term AI
| - AI: “Making a machine behave in ways that would be called intelligent if a human were so behaving”
210
who introduced the term AI?
McCarthy
211
Miller
- “The Magical Number Seven Plus or Minus Two”
| - There are limits to a human’s ability to process information -- the capacity of the human mind is about 7 items
212
Broadbent's Filter Model of Attention
msg (input) -> sensory memory -> filter -> detector -> memory
- sensory memory holds all incoming info for a fraction of a second -> transfer to the filter
- filter identifies the msg that is being attended to and pass to detector
- detector process info (meaning) -> STM & LTM
213
modal model of memory
Atkinson & Shiffrin
| input -> sensory memory -> STM (rehearsal loop) (->output) LTM
214
components of LTM
- episodic (memory for events)
- semantic (memory for facts)
- procedural (skill memory)
215
Neuropsychology
- the study of the behavior of people with brain damage
| - provides insights into the functioning of different parts of the brain
216
Electrophysiology
- measuring electrical responses of the nervous system
| - made it possible to listen to the activity of single neurons
217
cognitive approach
focus on what occurs inside the mind before action
| - an information processing approach
218
information processing approach
sequences of mental operations
219
limitations of experimental cognitive psychology
- ecological validity (white-room effect) only applicable in lab settings, not generalizable
- provide indirect evidence that may not demonstrate neurological and computational plausibility
220
action potential
all or none
active for ~1millisecond
- travel all the way down without changing their height or shape
- action potentials always remain the same even if the stimulus is stronger -> just have more impulses rather than stronger ones
221
neurons
basic building blocks of the brain
222
Cajal
discovered that nerve nets were not continuous, but individual cells with synapses in between
223
who discovered that neurons were not interconnected but have gaps in between?
Cajal
224
resting potential
when there are no signals, -70mV relative to outside
225
graded potential
proportional to stimulus strength
226
specificity coding
idea that an object could be represented by the firing of a specialized neuron that responds only to that object
227
population coding
the representation of a particular object by the pattern of firing of a large number of neurons
228
sparse coding
object is represented by a pattern of firing of only a small group of neurons
229
localization of function
specific functions are served by specific areas of the brain
230
double dissociation
when damage to one part of the brain causes function A to be absent while function B is present
AND
damage to another area causes function B to be absent while function A is present
allows us to identify functions that are controlled by different parts of the brain
231
FFA
fusiform face area (recognition of faces)
232
PPA
parahippocampal place area (recognition of places)
233
fMRI
functional magnetic resonance imaging
uptake of oxygen indicates brain areas that are active during an activity
234
EEG
electroencephalography
measure brain waves (bc neurons use electricity and action potentials)
235
perception
experiences that result from stimulation of the sense
236
characteristics of perception
- can change based on added info
- involves (often unconscious) process similar to reasoning or problem solving
- occur in conjunction with actions
237
bistable state
switch between 2 images in an ambiguous figure
| rabbit vs duck
238
inverse projection problem
refers to the task of determining the object responsible for a particular image on the retina
start from the retinal image -> extend outward to the source of that image
239
bottom-up processing
perception starts with the senses
| relies on incoming raw data
240
top-down processing
perception starts with the brain, based on knowledge, experience, and expectations
241
why is it difficult to design a perceiving machine?
- objects can be hidden or blurred
- ambiguous
- angles (viewpoint invariance)
- humans can make use of environmental cues and pre-existing knowledge to add context and understand the image
242
Helmholtz
theory of unconscious inference (top-down)
likelihood principle: we perceive the object that is “most likely”
unconscious interference: perceptions are the result of unconscious assumptions that we make about the environment
243
who discovered the theory of unconscious inference?
Helmhotz
244
likelihood principle
we perceive the object that is “most likely”
245
unconscious interference
perceptions are the result of unconscious assumptions that we make about the environment
246
Bayesian inference
one’s estimate of the probability is due to ...
- prior probability (initial belief about the probability of an outcome)
- likelihood of a given outcome
cough -> lung disease vs cold vs heart burn example
247
oblique effect
ppl perceive horizontals and verticles easier than other orientations
248
light-from-above assumption
assume light always comes from above so we perceive images with that in mind too
249
semantic regularities in scene schemas
in a kitchen setting
we expect a bread
but when we are flashed with a pic with a letterbox there (looks v much like a loaf) we will assume we saw a bread and think it is bread
250
(gestalt) law of good continuation
lines tend to be seen as following the smoothest path
251
(gestalt) law of pragnanz
every stimulus pattern is seen so the resulting structure is as simple as possible
252
(gestalt) law of similarity
similar things appear to be grouped together
253
(gestalt) law of closure
tendency to see visual item as part of a larger object
254
figure-ground
background vs foreground show different objects
255
heuristics
```
rule of thumb
mental shortcuts
provides best-guess solution
fast
often correct
```
256
algorithm
procedure guaranteed to solve a problem
slow
definite result
257
recognition-by-components theory
put together the smaller pieces to form the big picture
258
geons
3d volumes, put together to form an object
| 36 diff variations present
259
thatcher illusion
we can identify objects from many different orientations
260
what and where pathways
temporal lobe: what (ventral) pathway, identifying
| parietal lobe: where (dorsal) pathway, location
261
attention
the ability to focus on specific stimuli or locations
262
selective attention
attending to one thing while ignoring others
263
divided attention
paying attention to more than one thing at a time
264
distraction
one stimulus interfering with the processing of another stimulus
265
cocktail party effect
the ability to focus on one stimulus while filtering out other stimuli
266
Treisman’s Attenuation Model of Attention
msg -> attenuator -> dictionary unit -> memory
attenuator analyze msg based on characteristics, language, and meaning
attended msg -> dictionary unit (full strength)
unattended msg -> weak
267
late processing model
1. given an ambiguous sentence with 2 meanings
2. have a biasing word in the unattended ear
3. meaning of biasing word affected the participant's interpretation of the sentence
268
processing capacity
amount of info people can handle
269
perceptual load
difficulty of a task
270
overt attention
shifting attention from one place to another
271
fixation
short pauses on points of interest
272
saccades
rapid movements of the eyes from one place to another
273
pre cueing
directing attention without moving the eyes
274
covert attention
shifting attention while keeping eyes still
275
exogenous attention
the redirection of attention toward an unexpected stimulus
276
inattentional blindness
- being unaware of clearly visible stimuli if not directing attention to them
- a stimulus that is not attended to is not perceived
277
binding
the process by which features such as color, form, motion, and location are combined to create our perception of a coherent object
278
feature integration theory (FIT)
object | pre attentive | focused attentive | perception
- pre attentive stage: automatic, occurs before we focus attention on an object
- focused attentive stage: attention plays a key role, allows features to be combined correctly
279
patient RM (attention)
Balint’s syndrome
| inability to focus attention on indiv onjects, high number of illusory conjunctions reported
280
illusory conjunctions
- combining features of separate objects together
| - occur because features and free-floating
281
parallel process
identifying unique features
282
serial process
identifying target among conjunctive items
283
inductive reasoning
- one of the primary mechanisms involved in making judgments
- it is the process of drawing general conclusions based on specific observations and evidence
- conclusions reached are probabilistic and not definitive
- making predictions about what will happen based on what has happened in the past
- strong inductive arguments result in conclusions that are more likely to be true
284
factors contributing to the strength of an inductive argument
- representativeness of observations: how well do the observations represent all members?
- number of observations
- quality of evidence: stronger evidence = stronger conclusion, consider scientific evidence
285
availability heuristic
- events that come to mind more easily are judged as being more probable than events that are less easily recalled
- events that have been sensationalized in the media are more likely to cause this error
286
illusory correlations
- relationship between two events appear to exist, but in reality, there is no or weak relationship between the two, fool ourselves into thinking that 2 events are related
- can result in stereotypes
287
stereotypes
oversimplified generalization about a group or class of people (often focusing on the negatives) >> selective attention to the stereotypical behaviors make these behaviors more "available"
288
representative heuristic
the judgment of probability that object A belongs to class B by similarity and resemblance
289
what makes people more prone to representative heuristic?
1. resemblance
- use of illusory correlations & stereotypes to make judgments
- overlook base rates: the relative proportion of different classes in the population
2. conjunction rule
- states that the probability of conjunction of 2 events (A&B) cannot be higher than the probability of the single constituents (A/B)
3. incorrectly assuming that small samples are representative
- the law of large numbers states that larger sample sizes are more representative of the entire population
- thus, small samples are less representative ∴ we cannot overgeneralize
290
myside bias
people's prior beliefs may have caused them to attend to info that corresponded with their beliefs and to disregard info that didn't
291
[Charles Lord, Capital punishment]
- 1 group for, 1 against capital punishment
- asked to read research studies (some provided evidence that capital punishment is a deterrent, while others say no effect)
- those for capital punishment rated studies that say it is a deterrent as convincing
- those against, rated studies as unconvincing
292
confirmation bias
- people look for info that conforms to their hypothesis and ignore info that refutes it
- myside bias is a type of confirmation bias
- broader as it holds true for any situation, not just opinions/attitudes
293
[Fukushima flower radiation defect study]
tend to believe a piece of info as the truth even though there is no credible source or evidence = due to ppl not having access/don't seek out resources to find out if the info is accurate or not
294
[US invasion, Iraq hiding weapons study]
- presented with a mock news story that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction
- some received a correction notice, others did not
- liberals: correction effectively reduced misperceptions
- moderate-liberal & centralists: correction notice had no effect
- conservatives: more likely to believe the misperception even after
the correction
295
backfire effect
an individual's support for a particular
viewpoint could become stronger when faced with
corrective facts opposing their viewpoint (get defensive)
296
inductive vs deductive reasoning
inductive reasoning: starts with specific cases and generalize to broad principles
deductive reasoning: starts with broad principles to make logical predictions about specific cases, determine whether a conclusion logically follows from statements (deduce something, from a bigger picture, I can deduce that this is the outcome)
297
syllogisms
consists of 2 broad statements (premises), followed by a conclusion
298
mental model of deductive reasoning
mental model: specific situation represented in a person's mind that can be used to help determine the validity of syllogisms
1. people create a model/imagined representation
2. generate a tentative conclusion
3. look for exceptions that might falsify the model modify the model
4. if no more exceptions, conclude that the syllogism is valid
299
advantages of mental model of deductive reasoning
+ can be used to assess a syllogism's validity without training in the rules of logic
+ makes predictions that can be tested
300
[Watson Fou-Card Problem]
1. presented with 4 cards, E K 4 7, each card has a letter on one side, and one number on the other
2. tasked to indicate which 2 cards need to be turned over to test the following rule:
~if there is a vowel on one side of the card,
then there is an even number on the other side~
301
falsification principle
to test a rule, it is necessary to look for situations that would falsify the rule (by testing not q)
302
real world version of Watson Four-Card Problem
- beer/drinking age
- easier bc it involves things people are familiar with
- make use of permissions/cheating schema, people are sensitive to situations in which permissions/regulations are involved (evolutionary pov)
303
expected utility theory
if people have all the relevant info, they will make a decision that results in the maximum expected utility
304
utility
outcomes that achieve a person's goals
305
advantages of using expected utility theory
has specific procedures that make it possible to determine which choice would result in the highest gain (following probabilities)
- but people don't follow these procedures and are instead influenced by other considerations
306
how do emotions affect decision making?
- anxious people tend to avoid making decisions that could potentially lead to a large negative consequence
- optimistic people are more likely to ignore negative info, focus on positive info, base their decisions on incomplete info
307
incidental emotions
emotions that are not caused by having to make a decision
can be related to
- person's general disposition (naturally a happy person)
- something that happened earlier (that caused them to feel happy)
- general environment (that made them feel happy)
308
[Ultimatum Game]
- 2 players (1 proposer, 1 responder)
- proposer given a sum of money and gets to decide how to split the money
- responder accepts and gets the money that was offered or rejects and no one gets anything
- proposer can be human or computer
- evenly split (5-5) or (7-3), acceptance rates for human and computer proposer were equal
- when unfair offer was presented, less acceptance rates for human proposer, bc ppl felt that it was unfair (with human, less unfair if it was computer)
309
neuroeconomics
combines research from fields of psych, econs, and neuroscience to study how brain activation is related to decisions that involve potential gains or losses
310
framing effect
decisions are influenced by how the choices are stated/framed, the way a problem is stated can highlight some features of the situation (+/-)
when framed in terms of gains -> ppl are more risk averse (avoid risk)
when framed in terms of losses -> ppl are more risk-taking
311
status quo bias
tendency to do nothing when faced with a decision
312
which part of the brain is connected with negative emotional states (pain, distress, anger)
right anterior insula
313
which part of the brain is important in decision making
prefrontal cortex
314
what is a problem
a problem occurs when there is an obstacle between a present state and a goal and it is not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle, it is a situation in which you need to accomplish a goal and the solution is not immediately obvious
315
gestalt approach to problem solving
problem solving is about …
(1) how people represent a problem in their mind
(2) how solving a problem involves reorganization or restructuring of this representation
316
restructuring
perceiving the object and then representing it in a different way, the process of changing the problem's representation
317
insight
any sudden comprehension, realization, or problem that involves a reorganization of a person's mental representation of a stimulus, situation, or event to yield an interpretation that was not initially obvious
318
fixation (functional fixedness)
tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of the problem that keeps them from arriving at a solution
319
functional fixedness
focusing on familiar functions or uses of an object
320
mental set
preconceived notion about how to approach a problem which is determined by a person's experience of what has worked in the past
321
Newell & Simon's information processing approach
described problem solving as a process that involves search
322
initial state
conditions at the beginning of the problem
323
goal state
solution to the problem
324
operators
actions that take the problem from one state to the other
325
intermediate state
conditions after each step is made toward solving a problem, all the intermediate states make up the operators
326
problem space
all possible states that could occur when solving a problem
327
means-end analysis
to reduce the difference between the initial and goal states
1. compare current state to goal state
2. set goal: solve the difference
3. solve the goal from step 2
4. if operator (trial) cannot be applied select a new goal (by changing your way of solving)
328
subgoals
intermediate states that are closer to the goal
329
Kohler study on insight
Monkey and banana problem
- banana hanging from the ceiling and crates on the floor
- monkey use trial-and-error and finally is able to solve the problem when it has insight
330
Metcalfe & Wiebe
solving insight vs non-insight problems
how "warm" do you feel to solving the problem
- for insight problems, there is a jump (a sudden awareness)
- for non-insight, it is a gradual incremental progress
331
Duncker's Candle Problem
to showcase functional fixedness (of the matchbox)
332
studies to show functional fixedness
Duncker's candle problem
| Maier's two-string problem
333
Water Jug Problem
showcase challenge of having a mental set
334
different heuristics people use to solve a problem
- brute force
- hill climbing
- working backwards
- means-end analysis
335
think aloud protocol
participants are asked to say out loud what they are thinking, not describe what they are doing, but to verbalize new thoughts as they occur, the goal is to determine what info the person is attending to while solving a problem
336
analogical problem solving
using the solution to a similar problem to guide solution of a new problem
337
analogical transfer
the transfer from one problem to another
338
source problem
another problem that shares similarities with the target problem
339
target problem
problem to be solved
340
3 steps to analogical problem solving
1. noticing the relationship between the source and target problem
2. mapping the correspondence -- which parts in the source corresponds to the target
3. applying the mapping to generate a parallel solution
341
analogical encoding
process by which 2 problems are compared and similarities between them are determined
when presented with a problem and a solution A/B, when you are trying to solve a new problem, you tend to use solution it was previously paired with (A/B respectively)
342
analogical paradox
difficult to apply analogies in lab settings but ppl use analogies in real-world settings more often
343
define experts
people who, by devoting a large amount of time to learning about a field and practicing and applying that learning, have become acknowledged as being extremely knowledgeable or skilled in that particular field
344
expert vs novice
experts usually faster than novice
1i. experts possess more knowledge about their fields
- store a lot of previous patterns and experiences
1ii. expert's knowledge is organized differently
- rather than grouping similarities at face value (surface features), experts group problems based on more meaningful context (structural features)
1iii. experts spend more time analyzing problems
experts do not dive straight into solving a problem
345
pitfalls of experts
- experts are less open to new ways of looking at problems
- when confronting a problem that requires flexible thinking -- a problem whose solution may involve rejecting the usual procedures in favor of other procedures that might not normally be used
346
divergent thinking
thinking that is open-ended, involving a large number of potential "solutions"
347
a creative solution must be ...
useful, anything that is in some way novel and has potential value or utility -- but this does not explain creativity in the arts
348
practical creativity
includes the idea that the solution has some form of value and utility
examples:
- velcro
- Odon's device for stuck babies in the birth canal
349
creative cognition
Ronald Finke developed a technique to train ppl to think creatively
350
Basadur problem solving process 4 stages
```
I. problem generation
- problem finding
- fact finding
II. problem formulation
- problem definition
- idea finding
III. problem solving
- evaluation selection
- planning
IV. solution implementation
- selling idea
- taking action
```
usually in a cycle
351
which part of the brain groups lower level info into meaningful patterns?
left anterior temporal lobe
used transcranial direct current stimulation to deactivate the right ATL, people tend to be able to "think outside the box" when only the left ATL was active
352
findings of Kounios on insight and non-insight brain area activation
insight: frontal lobe
non-insight: occipital lobe (toward the back of the brain)
"the prepared mind" -- these were seen on EEG prior to solving the respective problems
353
Baird & coworkers
did an experiment to connect mind wandering and creativity
- incubation: phenomenon of getting ideas after taking a break
1. 2 minutes to think of unusual uses for common objects (alternative uses task AUT)
2. 12 minute incubation period (either difficult task or easy task to vary mind wandering)
3. redo AUT,
- those who did easy task, had more mind wandering, thus improved in the redo AUT
354
executive control network
- involved in directing attention as a person is carrying out tasks
- activity in this region increases when people are involved in tasks that require attention
- plays a crucial role in creativity
355
what do creative people do?
- daydream (make space for unstrcutured thoughts)
- solitude (reduce distarctions, give themselves time)
- mindfulness (focused attention meditation, open monitoring meditation)
356
generating -> evaluating ideas
Ellamil & coworkers
- regions of default mode network and executive control network more strongly activated during idea evaluation
- concluded that activity in DMN and ECN was coordinated during creative evaluation
357
memory
process involved in retaining, retrieving, and using information about stimuli
358
sensory memory
initial stage, holds all incoming info for seconds or fraction of a second
eg, in movies (snapshots of pictures but we make it into ancoherent smooth video)
359
persistence of vision
continued perception of a visual stimulus even after it is no longer present
eg: light trail
360
STM
holds 5-9, (7+-2)
| 15-20 seconds
361
STM peterson & peterson (Brown peterson test)
3 letters 3 numbers
count the number backwards by intervals of 3
recall the 3 letters
after 3 secs delay (of counting numbers) 80% accurate
after 18 sec dalay 12% accurate
362
chunking
chunk is defined as a collection of elements that are strongly associated with one another but are weakly associated with elements in other chunks
363
working memory
limited capacity, temporary storage
| manipulation of information
364
Baddeley
- central executive
- phonological loop
- visuo-spatial sketchpad
- episodic buffer
365
phonological loop
phonological store: buffer for auditory info
| articulatory rehearsal: refresh and transfer
366
word length effect
shorter words easier to recall
language with shorter articulation (syllables) easier to recall
bc faster to rehear after remembering
367
phonological similarity effect
easier to recall words that do not sound similar to each other (do not rhyme)
368
articulatry suprression
have participant repeat a word/irrelevant sound then asked to recall
pevent them from rehearsing
eleminates the word length effect and phonological similarity effect
369
visuo-spatial sketchpad
holds visual and spatial info
| if the image is roated in a lesser degree, easier and faster to identify if 2 are the same or not
370
central executive
attention controller, controls suppression of irrelevant info
focus, divide, switch attention
371
episodic buffer
a way of increasing storage capacity and a gateway to communicate to LTM
372
LTM
can hold large amount of info for years and even decades
373
encoding
storing info in long term memory
374
retrieval
process of remembering info
375
control process
dynamic processes associated with the structural features that can be controlled by the person
eg; rehearsal, strategies that help you rmb
376
Sperling experiment
3x4 numbers and letters
recall
try again but only asked to recall a specific row
recall all: 33%
one row: 75%
delay one row: 25%
377
proactive interference
occurs when info learned prev and stored in LTM interferes w learning of new info
378
evaluation of modal model
oversimplified
claims STM is modality free
control/manipulation process not clearly specified
claims rehearsal necessary for transfer to LTM
379
primacy effect
rmb words that were stated first better
| more time to rehearse
380
recency effect
rmb words at the end of the list better
| words stored in STM
381
patient HM
hippocampus removal
x LTM
ok STM
can learn new skill but thinks hes doing it for the first time always
382
patient KF
damaged parietal lobe
ok LTM
x STM
STM only hold up to 2 things
383
patient KC
hippocampus
lost episodic
ok semantic
384
patient LP
lost semantic
| ok episodic
385
remember/know procedure
10 yrs rmb > know
| 50 yrs know > rmb
386
priming
the presentation of one stimulus changes the way a person responds to another stimulus
387
propaganda effect
more likely to rate statements they have read or heard before as true simply because they have been exposed to it before
388
cannot rmb anything after amnesia
| lose ability to learn
anterograde amnesia
389
memory loss before brain damage
retrograde amnesia
390
primacy effect and recency effect
| u shaped curve
serial position curve
391
explicit LTM includes
episodic, semantic
392
implicit LTM includes
priming, procedural, conditioning
393
who discovered the levels of processing theory
Craig
394
levels of processing theory
letter
rhyme
semantic
395
memory is better when you link words to yourself
self-reference effect
396
generate info yourself better than passively reading or receiving it
generation effect
397
free recall
general qn and asked to remember the details
398
cued recall
given some trigger words
399
recognition
like in mcq
400
encoding specificity
environmental context dependent memory
learn in water, better recall in water
learn on land, better recall on land
401
memory and emotion
when a memory is associated with a strong emotion, it is better able to be recalled
402
flashbulb memories
memory for cicumstances surrounding how a person heard about an event
- very complete
- very accurate
- immune to forgetting
details fade but they believe flashbulb memory is accurate and more vivid (confident)
403
factors that determine what gets into LTM
- repetition
- effort/desire to learn
- emotion (impt)
- depth of process (semantic meaning) (impt)
404
faster to remember something you have already learnt
savings in relearning
405
to improve memory and learning
- distributed learning
- organise
- generate and test
- take breaks
- elaborate
- encoding specificity
406
information processing idea came from
computer as an analogy
influenced by emergence of computers
info proceeds through a series of systems and stages/steps
407
Tarr geon experiment
when geon is rotated to larger angle, it is harder to identify the shape (take longer to identify)
408
who discovered what and where pathways and how
Mishkin & Ungerleider
brain ablation (remove part of thd brain) on monkeys
409
what and how pathway
ventral: what
dorsal: how in humans (instead of where)
410
types of models of selective attention
1. early selection: broadbent's filter model
2. intermediate selection: treisman's attenuation theory
3. late selection: mackay
411
Stroop test
colour of the word does not match the definition, supposed to name the colour of the word, not read the word
hard bc you can't help but pay attention to the word meaning
412
posner
precueing task
413
schneider & shiffrin
divided attention
1. hold info about a target stimuli
2. pay attention to a bunch of other stimuli to determine if the target is among the distractors
at the start only 55% accurate, took 600 trials to reach 90% accuracy
practice made it possible for participants to divide attention -> became automatic processing
real world eg. driving or getting ready in the morning
414
Egly et al.
participants saw 2 side by side rectangles followed by a cue target
RT was fastest when target appeared where the cue was followed by when it was in the same rectangle (even faster than same area but diff rectangle) -> same object advantage
415
Cahill & McGaugh
memory and emotion
| can rmb the story (slide show ppt) after 2 weeks bc the story evoke strong emotions
416
Brown & Kulik
flashbulb memory
| asked abt Kennedy assasination
417
who did the phoneme restoration effect study
Warren
