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cognitive psych finals Flashcards

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1
Q

the multiple-factor approach

A

distributed representation
use factors beyond sensory and function to determine how concepts are divided within a category
Hoffman & Ralph
160 items, rate each item on features such as (color, taste, motion, sound, etc)
- animals were more highly associated with motion and color
- artifacts were more highly associated with performed actions
- mechanical devices (machines, vehicles) and musical instruments show an overlap, occupy a middle ground
animals have a crowding effect: animals tend to share many properties (eyes, legs, mouth, ability to move)
- propose that those with category-specific impairment just find it harder to differentiate bc animals are very similar

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2
Q

conceptual knowledge

A

knowledge that enables us to recognize objects and events and to make inferences about their properties

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3
Q

concept

A

mental representation of a class or individual, categories of objects, events, and abstract ideas

concepts provide rules for creating categories

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4
Q

category

A

includes all possible examples of a particular concept

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5
Q

definitional approach to categorization

A
  • decide whether something is a member of a category by determining whether a particular object meets the definition of a category
  • the problem is not all members of everyday categories have the same features
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6
Q
  • decide whether something is a member of a category by determining whether a particular object meets the definition of a category
  • the problem is not all members of everyday categories have the same features
A

definitional approach to categorization

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7
Q

Wittgenstein

A

proposed the idea of family resemblance, allows for some variation within a category

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8
Q

proposed the idea of family resemblance, allows for some variation within a category

A

Wittgenstein

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9
Q

prototype approach

A

membership is determined by comparing the object to a prototype that represents the category

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10
Q

membership is determined by comparing the object to a prototype that represents the category

A

prototype approach

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11
Q

prototype

A
  • typical member of the category, based on an average of members of a category
  • not an actual member of the category but is an average representation of the category
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12
Q

high vs low typicality

A

high > closely resembles the prototype

low > does not closely resemble the prototype

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13
Q

effects of prototypicality

A
  1. family resemblance
  2. typicality (people react rapidly to members of the category that are “typical” of the category)
  3. naming (prototypical objects are more likely to be named first)
  4. priming (prototypical objects are affected more by priming, green color example)
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14
Q

Smith & coworkers

A

[sentence verification technique]

  • determine how rapidly people could answer questions about an object’s category (eg. is apple a fruit vs is pomegranate a fruit)
  • participants responded faster for objects that had high prototypicality, typicality effect
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15
Q

[sentence verification technique]

  • determine how rapidly people could answer questions about an object’s category (eg. is apple a fruit vs is pomegranate a fruit)
  • participants responded faster for objects that had high prototypicality, typicality effect
A

Smith & coworkers

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16
Q

typicality effect

A

participants responded faster for objects that had high prototypicality

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17
Q

participants responded faster for objects that had high prototypicality

A

typicality effect

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18
Q

sentence verification technique

A

determine how rapidly people could answer questions about an object’s category (eg. is apple a fruit vs is pomegranate a fruit)

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19
Q

test how prototypical objects are affected more by priming

A

Rosch
- prime a word (”green”), show 2 primary green, or 2 light green, or 2 different primary colors, participants were asked if the colors are the same, faster response to the primary green pair (because that is the most typical green we are aware of, thus would imagine in our minds)

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20
Q

Rosch

A

prime a word (”green”), show 2 primary green, or 2 light green, or 2 different primary colors, participants were asked if the colors are the same, faster response to the primary green pair (because that is the most typical green we are aware of, thus would imagine in our minds)

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21
Q

prime a word (”green”), show 2 primary green, or 2 light green, or 2 different primary colors, participants were asked if the colors are the same, faster response to the primary green pair (because that is the most typical green we are aware of, thus would imagine in our minds)

A

Rosch

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22
Q

exemplar approach

A

determining whether an object is similar to other objects by comparing an object to an exemplar in the category

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23
Q

determining whether an object is similar to other objects by comparing an object to an exemplar in the category

A

exemplar approach

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24
Q

exemplar

A

actual members of the category that a person has encountered in the past

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25
Q

benefits of exemplar approach

A
  • able to take into account individual cases
  • works well for more variable categories like ‘games’ > more difficult to think of a prototype for ‘game’ but can think of many exemplars
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26
Q

prototypes vs exemplars

A
  • people may use both approaches, initially, we average exemplars into prototypes, then exemplar info becomes stronger
  • we generally know what is the prototype but we know our own specific exemplar the best
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27
Q

Collins and Quillian’s hierarchical approach

A
  • network consists of nodes that are connected by links
  • each node is a category or concept
  • hierarchical model because it contains levels that arrange to be more specific as it gets to the bottom
  • to know more about a specific object, you move up the link, can tell different properties
  • these properties are stored at a higher-level node to reduce storage space (bc most of these properties apply to more than one object)
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28
Q

cognitive economy

A
  • storing shared properties just once at a higher-level node
  • makes the network more efficient but this means overgeneralizing certain objects
  • exceptions will be added to lower-level nodes, specific to that object only
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29
Q

how to test the accuracy of hierarchical model?

A
  • measure time taken to retrieve info about a concept

- this is determined by the distance between nodes, further the distance, longer it takes

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30
Q

spreading activation

A

is the activity that spreads out along any link that is connected to an activated node, can influence priming

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31
Q

Meyer & Schvaneveldt

A 
[lexical decision task] 
tasked to answer if the string of letters is a word or non-word
trials had 
a. 2 nonwords
b. 1 nonword-1 word
c. 2 words (not related)
d. 2 words (closely related)
faster response for d. bc retrieving one word from memory triggered a spread of activation to other nearby locations in a network
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32
Q 
[lexical decision task] 
tasked to answer if the string of letters is a word or non-word
trials had 
a. 2 nonwords
b. 1 nonword-1 word
c. 2 words (not related)
d. 2 words (closely related)
faster response for d. bc retrieving one word from memory triggered a spread of activation to other nearby locations in a network
A

Meyer & Schvaneveldt

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33
Q

criticisms of the hierarchical model

A
  • could not explain typicality effect
  • cognitive economy – some people store specific info at the node for the object not one level higher
  • some people can reply faster to nodes further away (more vague) (eg. is pig a mammal vs is pig an animal, ppl answer to animal faster but it is a further node)
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34
Q

network models of categorization

A
  • hierarchical approach

- connectionist approach

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35
Q

connectionism

A

an approach to creating computer models for representing cognitive processes

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36
Q

an approach to creating computer models for representing cognitive processes

A

connectionism

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37
Q

connectionist model

A

parallel distributed processing (PDP)

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38
Q

what is parallel distributed processing (PDP)

A
  • a connectionist model
  • made up of units
  • input, output, hidden units
  • connection weights (thicker means stronger activation)
  • activation of units depend on:
    signal that originates from input unit
    connection weights throughout the network
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39
Q

McClelland & Rogers

A

coined the idea of a connectionist network

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40
Q

coined the idea of a connectionist network

A

McClelland & Rogers

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41
Q

how to train a connectionist network

A
  • in an untrained network, a lot of wrong units will be activated due to the spreading activation and incorrect differences in weights
  • learning process occurs when the erroneous responses in the property units cause an error signal to be sent back through the network, by a process called back propagation
  • through the training process, learn to assign different weights, so that activation is more accurate next time and only activates the proper units
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42
Q

benefits of a connectionist model

A
  • the operation of connectionist networks is not totally disrupted by damage
  • connectionist networks can explain generalization of learning
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43
Q

connectionist networks can explain generalization of learning

A
  • similar concepts have similar patterns
  • training a system to recognize one concept also provides info about another related concept
  • this is similar to the way we learn about concepts we have never seen before
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44
Q

graceful degradation

A

disruption of performance occurs only gradually as parts of the system are damaged

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45
Q

disruption of performance occurs only gradually as parts of the system are damaged

A

graceful degradation

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46
Q

4 proposals about how concepts are represented in the brain

A
  1. the sensory-functional approach
  2. the multiple-factor approach
  3. the semantic category approach
  4. the embodied approach
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47
Q

the sensory-functional approach

A
  • ability to differentiate living things and artifacts (non-living things) depends on a memory system that distinguishes sensory attributes (fur pattern) and a system that distinguishes functions (how is a tool used)
  • studied category-specific impairment patients: impairment in which they had lost the ability to identify one type of object but retained the ability to identify other types of objects
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48
Q
  • ability to differentiate living things and artifacts (non-living things) depends on a memory system that distinguishes sensory attributes (fur pattern) and a system that distinguishes functions (how is a tool used)
  • studied category-specific impairment patients: impairment in which they had lost the ability to identify one type of object but retained the ability to identify other types of objects
A

sensory-functional approach

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49
Q

rejections of sensory-functional approach

A
  • patient with sensory deficit (performed poorly on perceptual tests) better at identifying animals than artifacts
  • patients are able to identify mechanical devices but not for other artifacts, artifacts are not a single homogeneous category
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50
Q

Hoffman & Ralph

A

160 items, rate each item on features such as (color, taste, motion, sound, etc)

  • animals were more highly associated with motion and color
  • artifacts were more highly associated with performed actions
  • mechanical devices (machines, vehicles) and musical instruments show an overlap, occupy a middle ground
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51
Q

160 items, rate each item on features such as (color, taste, motion, sound, etc)

  • animals were more highly associated with motion and color
  • artifacts were more highly associated with performed actions
  • mechanical devices (machines, vehicles) and musical instruments show an overlap, occupy a middle ground
A

Hoffman & Ralph

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52
Q

the semantic category approach

A

there are specific neural circuits in the brain for some specific categories

  • Mahon & Caramazza proposed that there are a limited number of categories that are innately determined bc of their importance for survival (eg face, place, body)
  • Huth proposed the category map, indicates where specific words activate in the cortex (eg. words associated with violence at the back of the brain)
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53
Q

Mahon & Caramazza

A

proposed that there are a limited number of categories that are innately determined bc of their importance for survival (eg face, place, body)

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54
Q

proposed that there are a limited number of categories that are innately determined bc of their importance for survival (eg face, place, body)

A

Mahon & Caramazza

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55
Q

proposed the category map, indicates where specific words activate in the cortex (eg. words associated with violence at the back of the brain)

A

Huth

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56
Q

Huth

A

proposed the category map, indicates where specific words activate in the cortex (eg. words associated with violence at the back of the brain)

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57
Q

the embodied approach

A
  • states that our knowledge of concepts is based on reactivation of sensory and motor processes that occur when we interact with the object
  • Hauk measured participants’ brain activity using fMRI under 2 conditions
    (1) as participants did actual movements and
    (2) as participants read action words of such movements
    activation is more extensive for actual movements
    but activation caused by reading occurs in approximately the same areas of the brain
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58
Q

Hauk

A

measured participants’ brain activity using fMRI under 2 conditions
(1) as participants did actual movements
(2) as participants read action words of such movements
activation is more extensive for actual movements
but activation caused by reading occurs in approximately the same areas of the brain

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59
Q

measured participants’ brain activity using fMRI under 2 conditions
(1) as participants did actual movements
(2) as participants read action words of such movements
activation is more extensive for actual movements
but activation caused by reading occurs in approximately the same areas of the brain

A

Hauk

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60
Q

semantic somatotopy

A

correspondence between words related to specific parts of the body and the location of brain activity

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61
Q

correspondence between words related to specific parts of the body and the location of brain activity

A

semantic somatotopy

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62
Q

rejections of the embodied approach

A
  • patient AA: suffered a stroke, impaired physical motion, but had no trouble recognizing objects
  • not well suited to explain our knowledge of abstract concepts
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63
Q

TRANSCRANIAL MAGNETIC STIMULATION (TMS)

A
  • temporarily disrupt the functioning of a particular area of the brain by applying a pulsating magnetic field using a stimulating coil placed over the person’s skull
  • if the particular behavior is disrupted by the pulses, conclude that the disrupted area of the brain is involved in that behavior
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64
Q

hub and spoke

A

hub (main, integrates the info from other brain areas), spoke (specialized brain areas)
hub causes general deficits
spoke causes specific deficits

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65
Q

anterior temporal lobe (ATL)

A

a hub that plays a role in integrating info

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66
Q

family resemblance

A

idea that things in a particular category resemble one another in a number of ways

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67
Q

Rosch & Mervis

A
  • concluded that there is a strong relationship between family resemblance and prototypicality
  • when an item’s characteristics have a large amount of overlap with the charcateristics of many other items in a catergory, this means that the family resemblance of these items is high
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68
Q

Mervis et al.

A

when subjects were asked to list as many objects in a category as possible, they tend to list the most prototyipcal members of the category first

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69
Q

when subjects were asked to list as many objects in a category as possible, they tend to list the most prototyipcal members of the category first

A

Mervis et al.

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70
Q

hierarchical organization

A

a kind of organization in which larger, more general categories are divided into smaller, more specific ones, creating a number of levels of categories

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71
Q

Rosch’s approach: basic level categories

A

(1) global – can only name a few descriptors
(2) basic – name quite a few features of basic objects
(3) specific – can name a lot of features but this info is not v useful

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72
Q

Tanaka & Taylor

A

showed pictures of objects, participants were experts or non-experts

  • experts (eg of birds) named specific objects (birds) when they saw a picture of it
  • non-expert simply said the basic level (bird)
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73
Q

showed pictures of objects, participants were experts or non-experts

  • experts (eg of birds) named specific objects (birds) when they saw a picture of it
  • non-expert simply said the basic level (bird)
A

Tanaka & Taylor

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74
Q

visual imagery

A

seeing in the absence of a visual stimulus

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75
Q

mental imagery

A

broader term that refers to the ability to re-create the sensory world in the absence of physical stimuli of all senses

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76
Q

Wundt

A

first person to apply scientific method into understanding the human mind

approach: structuralism – elements “periodic table of the mind”
method: analytic introspection

  • proposed that images were one of the three basic elements of consciousness (along with sensations and feelings)
  • proposed that images accompany thought
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77
Q

imageless thought debate

A

the debate about whether thought is possible in the absence of images

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78
Q

Francis Galton

A

proposed that imagery is not required for thinking

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79
Q

proposed that imagery is not required for thinking

A

Francis Galton

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80
Q

Alan Paivio

A

proposed the idea that it is easier to remember concrete nouns that can be imagined vs abstract nouns through the technique of paired-associated learning

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81
Q

who proposed the technique of paired-associated learning

A

Alan Paivio

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82
Q

[Paired-Associated Learning]

A
  • participants are presented with pairs of words
  • during the test period, they are presented with the first word of each pair
  • the task is to recall the paired word
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83
Q

conceptual peg hypothesis

A

concrete nouns create images that other words can hang onto and enhances memory for these words

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84
Q

[Mental Chronometry]

A

determining the amount of time needed to carry out various cognitive tasks (mental rotation of a geometric object to figure out if they were the same shape (supports spatial representation theory)

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85
Q

Shepard & Metzler

A

mental chronometry

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86
Q

mental chronometry

A

Shepard & Metzler

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87
Q

mental scanning

A

create mental images and then scan them in their minds

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88
Q

Kosslyn, mental scanning

A
  • asked participants to memorize a picture of an object (eg a boat) and create an image of that object in their mind
  • focus on one part of the boat, then asked to look for another part of the boat (to press the “true” button once they located it and “false” when they could not find it)
  • proposed that it would take longer to locate a part of the boat if it was further away
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89
Q
  • asked participants to memorize a picture of an object (eg a boat) and create an image of that object in their mind
  • focus on one part of the boat, then asked to look for another part of the boat (to press the “true” button once they located it and “false” when they could not find it)
  • proposed that it would take longer to locate a part of the boat if it was further away
A

Kosslyn

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90
Q

imagery debate

A

a debate about whether imagery is based on spatial mechanism or on mechanisms related to language

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91
Q

spatial representations

A

representations in which different parts if an image can be described as corresponding to specific locations in space

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92
Q

representations in which different parts if an image can be described as corresponding to specific locations in space

A

spatial representations

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93
Q

epiphenomenon

A

something that accompanies the real mechanism but is not actually part of the mechanism

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94
Q

Pylyshyn

A
  • argued that just because we experience imagery as spatial, does not mean that the underlying representation is spatial
  • proposed propositional representations
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95
Q

who proposed propositional representations

A

Pylyshyn

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96
Q

propositional representations

A

representations in which relationships can be represented by abstract symbols

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97
Q

representations in which relationships can be represented by abstract symbols

A

propositional representations

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98
Q

depictive representations

A

representations in which parts of the representation correspond to parts of the object

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99
Q

representations in which parts of the representation correspond to parts of the object

A

depictive representations

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100
Q

Kosslyn, mental walk task

A
  • imagine you are walking toward a mental image of the animal
  • takes longer to walk toward the smaller animal before the animal fills up the entire visual field
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101
Q

mental walk task

A

Kosslyn

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102
Q

rabbit and elephant vs rabbit and fly

A

when asked questions about details of the rabbit, faster response when the rabbit was larger in the visual field

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103
Q

Cheves Perky

A

asked participants to describe a banana, a faint image of a banana was projected in front of them, their descriptions matched the projection but no one realized there was a picture there

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104
Q

asked participants to describe a banana, a faint image of a banana was projected in front of them, their descriptions matched the projection but no one realized there was a picture there

A

Cheves Perky

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105
Q

method of loci

A

a method in which things to be remembered are placed at different locations in a mental image of a spatial layout

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106
Q

a method in which things to be remembered are placed at different locations in a mental image of a spatial layout

A

method of loci

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107
Q

pegword technique

A

involves imagery, associate items with concrete words

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108
Q

ways to use imagery to improve memory

A
  1. method of loci - placing images at locations

2. peg word - associate image with words

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109
Q

[Paper Folding Test]

A
  • Kozhevnikov
  • saw a piece of folded paper, then pierced by a pencil
  • imagine what the unfolded paper will look like from 5 options
  • tested: spatial imagery
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110
Q

[Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire (VVIQ)]

A
  • Kozhevnikov
  • participants rated on a 5-point scale, the vividness of mental images they were asked to create
  • tested: object imagery
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111
Q

object imagery

A

ability to image visual details, features of objects

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112
Q

spatial imagery

A

ability to image spatial relations

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113
Q

Kozhevnikov

A
  • classified participants into visualizers and verbalizers
    visualizers; test to measure 2 types of imagery: spatial & object
  • spatial and object imagery are negatively correlated, if you are good at spatial, you are likely to not be that good at object
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114
Q

[Degraded Pictures Task]

A

a drawing hidden among a bunch of degraded lines (looks like disjointed scribbles, when you connect some of these lines they form an image of a drawing of something
- umbrella under the dots and lines

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115
Q

[Recording from Single Neurons in Humans]

A
  • participants were patients with intractable epilepsy that couldn’t be controlled by drugs, a possible cure is to remove the small area of the brain called the epileptic focus
  • electrodes are implanted in the patients’ brains and then monitored over a period of days, if there is a spontaneous seizure, it can help pinpoint the location of the focus
  • apart from that, electrodes can record activity caused by cognitive actions such as perceiving, imaging, and remembering
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116
Q

Kreiman et al.

A
  • measured neuron firing rate when object was presented (perceived) and when it was imagined (imagery)
  • neuron fired in the same way, these are called imagery neurons
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117
Q

measured neuron firing rate when object was presented (perceived) and when it was imagined (imagery)

A

Kreimen et al.

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118
Q

Samuel Le Bihan

A

both perception and imagery activate in the visual cortex (imagery less activation)

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119
Q

who discovered that both perception and imagery activate in the visual cortex

A

Samuel Le Bihan

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120
Q

topographic map

A
  • visual cortex is organized in which specific locations on a visual stimulus cause activity at specific locations in the visual cortex
  • points next to each other on the stimulus cause activity at locations next to each other on the cortex
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121
Q

how are mental images of different sizes represented in the brain

A
  • small images were concentrated at the back of the brain, as the images get bigger, it travels to the front of the visual cortex
  • and this is similar for perception
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122
Q

findings from neuropsychological studies on visual imagery

A
  1. removing part of the visual cortex decreases image size
  2. problems with perceiving are accompanied by problems with imagery
  3. there are dissociations between imagery and perception
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123
Q

unilateral neglect

A
  • patient ignores objects in one half of the visual field

- caused by damage to the parietal lobe

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124
Q

patient RM (visual imagery)

A
  • normal perception but impaired imagery
  • can recognize and draw objects but cannot draw from memory
  • had trouble replying to questions that involved having to imagine something
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125
Q
  • normal perception but impaired imagery
  • can recognize and draw objects but cannot draw from memory
  • had trouble replying to questions that involved having to imagine something
A

patient RM

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126
Q

patient CK (visual imagery)

A
  • impaired perception but normal imagery
  • suffered from visual agnosia, inability to visually recognize objects, could recognize parts of objects but could not integrate them into a meaningful whole
  • able to draw from memory but when shown his drawings, he could not recognize what he drew
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127
Q
  • impaired perception but normal imagery
  • suffered from visual agnosia, inability to visually recognize objects, could recognize parts of objects but could not integrate them into a meaningful whole
  • able to draw from memory but when shown his drawings, he could not recognize what he drew
A

patient CK

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128
Q

conclusions from the imagery debate

A
  • perception occurs automatically when we look at
    something, but imagery needs to be generated with some
    effort
  • perception is stable but imagery is fragile (can vanish without continued effort)
  • harder to manipulate mental images
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129
Q

what is language?

A
  • language is the idea that the ability to string sounds and words together opens the door to a world of communication
  • language is a system of communication using sounds or symbols that enables us to express our feelings, thoughts, ideas, and experiences
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130
Q

human language

A

humans use a variety of signals which can be combined in countless ways, thus it makes human language creative

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131
Q

hierarchical nature of language

A

consists of a series of small components that can be combined to form larger units → words can form phrases, phrases form sentences, which form a component of a story

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132
Q

rule based nature of language

A

components can be arranged in certain ways (to make sense) but not others (adjective then noun followed by verb, not verb then noun and adjective)

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133
Q

universal need to communicate with language

A
  • deaf children find ways to communicate even if no one there signs, use simple/novel sign language in the form of hand gestures
  • all humans with normal capacities develop a language and learn to follow its complex rules, even though they are not fully aware of the rules (go by feels)
  • there isn’t a single culture without language
    language development is similar across cultures (babbling, words, phrases, sentences)
  • unique but the same (same in the way that every language has nouns, verbs, and grammar rules)
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134
Q

frontal lobe (Broca’s area)

A

production of language

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135
Q

which part of the brain is in charge of the production of language

A

frontal lobe (Broca’s area)

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136
Q

temporal lobe (Wernicke’s area)

A

comprehension of language

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137
Q

which part of the brain is in charge of the comprehension of language

A

temporal lobe (Wernicke’s area)

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138
Q

psycholinguistics

A
  • psychological study of language

- discover the psychological processes by which humans acquire and process language

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139
Q

lexicon

A

all the words we know, “mental dictionary”

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140
Q

all the words we know, “mental dictionary”

A

lexicon

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141
Q

meaning of language

A

semantics

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142
Q

semantics

A

meaning of language

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143
Q

lexical semantics

A

meaning of words

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144
Q

word frequency effect

A
  • the fact that we respond more quickly to high-frequency words than to low-frequency words
  • study shows a slow response to low-frequency words because readers need more time to access the meaning of the words
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145
Q

Pollak & Pickett

A

meaning of words are context-dependent

  • words are more difficult to understand when taken out of context and presented alone
  • record conversations of participants
  • participants were presented with their own voice recordings but only isolated words
  • cant identify the same words when the words were isolated
  • shows that their ability to perceive words in conversations is aided by the context
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146
Q

complications in understanding words

A
  1. word frequency effect
  2. pronunciation
  3. there are no silences between words in normal conversations
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147
Q

the ability to hear and understand spoken words is affected by

A
  1. how frequently we have encountered a word in the past
  2. the context in which the words appear
  3. knowledge of statistical regularities of our language
  4. knowledge of word meanings
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148
Q

speech segmentation

A

the perception of individual words even though there are often no pauses between words

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149
Q

lexical ambiguity

A

words can have more than one meaning

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150
Q

[Lexical Priming] Tanenhaus et al.

A
  • task is to read the probe word ‘flower’, timed how fast it took to read

condition 1: she held a rose (flower) ——– faster
control: she held a post (flower)
condition 2: they all rose (flower) ———– faster than control, not as fast as (1)
control: they all touched (flower)

  • with 200ms delay, condition 2 took longer than control – flower meaning of rose is gone, context provided by the sentence helps determine the meaning of the word, context exerts its influence after a slight delay
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151
Q

Lexical Priming of “rose” and “flower”

A

Tanenhaus et al.

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152
Q

biased dominance

A

when a word has more than one meaning and the meaning of one of the words occurs more frequently than the others

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153
Q

when a word has more than one meaning and the meaning of one of the words occurs more frequently than the others

A

biased dominance

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154
Q

balanced dominance

A

when a word has more than one meaning and the meanings of the words are equally likely

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155
Q

when a word has more than one meaning and the meanings of the words are equally likely

A

balanced dominance

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156
Q

syntax

A

structure of a sentence

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157
Q

structure of a sentence

A

syntax

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158
Q

parsing

A

consider how meaning is created by grouping of words into phrases, making sense of sentences

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159
Q

garden path sentences

A
  • a sentence that begins to mean one thing, but as you read on, it end ups meaning something else
  • leads to temporary ambiguity
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160
Q

late closure

A

when a person encounters a new word, the person’s parsing mechanism assumes that this word is part of the current phrase, each word is added to the current phrase for as long as possible

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161
Q

when a person encounters a new word, the person’s parsing mechanism assumes that this word is part of the current phrase, each word is added to the current phrase for as long as possible

A

late closure

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162
Q

who tested garden path method of parsing?

A

Frazier

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163
Q

constraint-based approach to parsing

A
  • influence of word meaning – the word can be used as a verb or adjective depending on the noun used
  • influence of story context – the horse raced past the barn fell
  • influence of scene context – apple on the towel in the box
  • influence of memory load and prior experience with language – subject & object-relative clause
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164
Q

visual world paradigm

A
  • Tanenhaus

- involves determining how info in a scene can influence how a sentence is processed (apple on the towel in the box)

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165
Q

influence of memory load and prior experience with language

A

main clause & embedded clause

  • subject-relative clause: easier to understand if both clauses have the same subject (noun)
  • object-relative clause: harder/longer to understand bc subject became the object in the embedded clause,
  • > demands more of the reader’s memory (higher memory load, slows down processing)
  • > more complicated, subject switch to object later on
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166
Q

[Predicting what the boy will do] Altmann & Kamide

A
  • picture of a boy in a playroom with toys around and a cake
  • participants heard “the boy will move” and “the boy will eat”
  • eye movement measured
    “move”: took 127msec after they heard “cake” to look at the cake
    “eat” took -87msec = before they even heard “cake” they looked at the cake
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167
Q

[predicting what the boy will do study]

- picture of a boy in a playroom with toys around and a cake

A

Altmann & Kamide

168
Q

making inferences

A

determining what the text means by using our knowledge to go beyond the information provided by the text

169
Q

Bransford & Johnson

A

had participants read a passage and tested them with another similar passage (with inferences added) to determine what they remembered, results show that people say yes they remembered that from the passage even though that piece of information was not explicitly mentioned but inferred from the passage

170
Q

had participants read a passage and tested them with another similar passage (with inferences added) to determine what they remembered, results show that people say yes they remembered that from the passage even though that piece of information was not explicitly mentioned but inferred from the passage

A

Bransford & Johnson

171
Q

narrative

A

text where there is a story

172
Q

anaphoric inference

A

knowing what the pronoun refers to

173
Q

instrument inference

A

know what tool was used even though it was not mentioned, but solely from the context and word (verb) choice

174
Q

casual inference

A

making connections between 2 clauses (somewhat like cause-and-effect)

175
Q

situation models

A

stimulates the perceptual and motor characteristics of the objects and actions in a story
we tend to create perceptions that match the situation as described in the sentence

176
Q

given-new contract

A
  • speaker should construct sentences so that they include 2 kinds of information
    1. given information (info that the listener already knows of)
    2. new information (info that listener has never heard before
  • as the sentences progress, the new info from the prev sentence becomes the given info in the next sentence
177
Q

common ground

A

mental knowledge and beliefs shared among conversational parties

178
Q

Yule [referential communication task]

A
  • info involves reference
  • A and B have cards with them and have to identify the cards by describing it (the cards have random geometrical shapes on them, cannot just describe as a square or an apple
  • but once they establish this shape and give it a name (looks like a duck etc) they keep referring to that shape and the convo flows smoothly
179
Q

entrainment

A

the process of creating common ground and this results in synchronization between two parties

180
Q

the process of creating common ground and this results in synchronization between two parties

A

entrainment

181
Q

syntactic coordination

A
  • following how other people speak (form their sentence structure)
  • involves syntactic priming: one person primes with a sentence structure
  • the other person in the convo follows the type of sentence structure when responding
  • speakers are sensitive to the linguistic behavior of other speakers and adjust this behavior to match
  • it reduces the computational load involved in creating a conversation because it is easier to copy the form of someone else’s sentence than it is to create your own from scratch
182
Q

syntactic priming

A

one person primes the other with a sentence structure

183
Q

phoneme

A

shortest segment of speech, that if changed, changes the meaning of the word
- sound of the letters, phonics

184
Q

morphemes

A

smallest units of language that have definable meaning or grammatical function
- eg: -s, -ed, -ion, -ing

185
Q

phoneme restoration effect

A

occurs when phonemes are perceived in speech when the sound of the phoneme is covered up by an extraneous noise

186
Q

Warren [phoneme restoration effect]

A
  • replace phoneme with a cough sound
  • demonstrate top-down processing:
    (1) “filling-in” missing phoneme based on context
    (2) our knowledge of the meanings of words and the likely meanings of sentences affects speech perception
187
Q

meaning dominance

A

when some meanings of words occur more frequently than others

188
Q

when some meanings of words occur more frequently than others

A

meaning dominance

189
Q

coherence

A

the representation of the text in a person’s mind so that info from one part of the text is related to info in another part of the text

190
Q

Zwann & coworkers

A
  • subjects read a sentence that describes a situation involving an object
  • indicate as quickly as possible whether a picture shows the object mentioned in the sentence
  • reaction times were faster when the object in the picture matched the orientation and situation described
191
Q

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

A

the nature of a culture’s language can affect the way people think

192
Q

Winawer & coworkers

A
  • Russian-speaking vs English-speaking subjects discrimination between different shades of blue
  • Russian-speaking subjects responded more quickly when the two bottom squares were from different categories (according to their language they have specific names for those blue)
  • this is because the Russian language distinguishes the different shades of blue
193
Q

Russian-speaking vs English-speaking subjects discrimination between different shades of blue

A

Winawer & coworkers

194
Q

cognitive psychology

A
  • the study of mental processes

- determining the characteristics and properties of the mind as well as how it operates

195
Q

structuralism

A
  • description of the contents of consciousness
  • overall experience is determined by sensations, combinations of basic elements
  • “periodic table of the mind”
196
Q

analytic introspection

A

a technique whereby trained participants describe their experiences and thought processes in responses to a stimuli

197
Q

problems with introspection

A
  • only applies to conscious processing
  • poor reliability between subjects
  • subjective
  • hard to relate to physiology
  • made little progress in understanding the mind
198
Q

john watson

A

behaviorism

  • he rejects introspection as a method
  • focuses on observable behavior
    ignores those that are no observable
  • parsimony important to him
  • [Little Albert]
    classical conditioning – pairing one stimulus with another (neutral stimulus) causes changes in the responses to the neutral stimulus
199
Q

parsimony

A

the simplest explaination is the correct one

200
Q

behaviorism

A

B.F. Skinner

  • behavior is shaped by rewards and punishments
    rewarded > increase in the action
    punished > decrease in action
201
Q

Skinner

A

behaviorism, operant conditioning
Behavior is strengthened by the presentation of positive reinforcers (e.g., food, social approval) or withdrawal of negative reinforcers (e.g., shock, social rejection)

202
Q

challenges to behaviorism

A

Tolman; cognitive maps and rats

rat learned the maze layout rather than the reward of food

203
Q

Donders

A

simple reaction time vs choice reaction time
simple: flash of light and respond
choice: flash of light from left or right
- used RT as a behavioral measure
- diff in RT between simple and choice to indicate decision making time
(decision making time = choice RT - simple RT)

204
Q

Ebbinghaus

A

proposed a quantitative measurement of mental processes

  • Savings method to measure forgetting
  • Forgetting occurs rapidly in the first 1-2 days after original learning
205
Q

Tolman

A

Used behavior to infer mental processes; cognitive maps

- rat maze

206
Q

Chomsky

A
  • Language Acquisition Device – language development is determined by an inborn biological program
  • Language is a product of the way the mind is constructed, rather than a result of reinforcement
207
Q

Cherry

A
  • attention experiment
  • When people focused on the attended message, they could hear the sounds of the unattended message but were unaware of the contents of that message
208
Q

dichotic listening experiment

A

Cherry

  • asked participants to focus on the message in one ear (attended ear) and repeat what was said (shadowing)
  • participants could not report the contents of the message in the unattended ear (but could describe simple physical characteristics of the voice)
209
Q

McCarthy

A
  • introduced the term AI

- AI: “Making a machine behave in ways that would be called intelligent if a human were so behaving”

210
Q

who introduced the term AI?

A

McCarthy

211
Q

Miller

A
  • “The Magical Number Seven Plus or Minus Two”

- There are limits to a human’s ability to process information – the capacity of the human mind is about 7 items

212
Q

Broadbent’s Filter Model of Attention

A

msg (input) -> sensory memory -> filter -> detector -> memory

  • sensory memory holds all incoming info for a fraction of a second -> transfer to the filter
  • filter identifies the msg that is being attended to and pass to detector
  • detector process info (meaning) -> STM & LTM
213
Q

modal model of memory

A

Atkinson & Shiffrin

input -> sensory memory -> STM (rehearsal loop) (->output) LTM

214
Q

components of LTM

A
  • episodic (memory for events)
  • semantic (memory for facts)
  • procedural (skill memory)
215
Q

Neuropsychology

A
  • the study of the behavior of people with brain damage

- provides insights into the functioning of different parts of the brain

216
Q

Electrophysiology

A
  • measuring electrical responses of the nervous system

- made it possible to listen to the activity of single neurons

217
Q

cognitive approach

A

focus on what occurs inside the mind before action

- an information processing approach

218
Q

information processing approach

A

sequences of mental operations

219
Q

limitations of experimental cognitive psychology

A
  • ecological validity (white-room effect) only applicable in lab settings, not generalizable
  • provide indirect evidence that may not demonstrate neurological and computational plausibility
220
Q

action potential

A

all or none
active for ~1millisecond
- travel all the way down without changing their height or shape
- action potentials always remain the same even if the stimulus is stronger -> just have more impulses rather than stronger ones

221
Q

neurons

A

basic building blocks of the brain

222
Q

Cajal

A

discovered that nerve nets were not continuous, but individual cells with synapses in between

223
Q

who discovered that neurons were not interconnected but have gaps in between?

A

Cajal

224
Q

resting potential

A

when there are no signals, -70mV relative to outside

225
Q

graded potential

A

proportional to stimulus strength

226
Q

specificity coding

A

idea that an object could be represented by the firing of a specialized neuron that responds only to that object

227
Q

population coding

A

the representation of a particular object by the pattern of firing of a large number of neurons

228
Q

sparse coding

A

object is represented by a pattern of firing of only a small group of neurons

229
Q

localization of function

A

specific functions are served by specific areas of the brain

230
Q

double dissociation

A

when damage to one part of the brain causes function A to be absent while function B is present
AND
damage to another area causes function B to be absent while function A is present

allows us to identify functions that are controlled by different parts of the brain

231
Q

FFA

A

fusiform face area (recognition of faces)

232
Q

PPA

A

parahippocampal place area (recognition of places)

233
Q

fMRI

A

functional magnetic resonance imaging

uptake of oxygen indicates brain areas that are active during an activity

234
Q

EEG

A

electroencephalography

measure brain waves (bc neurons use electricity and action potentials)

235
Q

perception

A

experiences that result from stimulation of the sense

236
Q

characteristics of perception

A
  • can change based on added info
  • involves (often unconscious) process similar to reasoning or problem solving
  • occur in conjunction with actions
237
Q

bistable state

A

switch between 2 images in an ambiguous figure

rabbit vs duck

238
Q

inverse projection problem

A

refers to the task of determining the object responsible for a particular image on the retina

start from the retinal image -> extend outward to the source of that image

239
Q

bottom-up processing

A

perception starts with the senses

relies on incoming raw data

240
Q

top-down processing

A

perception starts with the brain, based on knowledge, experience, and expectations

241
Q

why is it difficult to design a perceiving machine?

A
  • objects can be hidden or blurred
  • ambiguous
  • angles (viewpoint invariance)
  • humans can make use of environmental cues and pre-existing knowledge to add context and understand the image
242
Q

Helmholtz

A

theory of unconscious inference (top-down)

likelihood principle: we perceive the object that is “most likely”
unconscious interference: perceptions are the result of unconscious assumptions that we make about the environment

243
Q

who discovered the theory of unconscious inference?

A

Helmhotz

244
Q

likelihood principle

A

we perceive the object that is “most likely”

245
Q

unconscious interference

A

perceptions are the result of unconscious assumptions that we make about the environment

246
Q

Bayesian inference

A

one’s estimate of the probability is due to …

  • prior probability (initial belief about the probability of an outcome)
  • likelihood of a given outcome

cough -> lung disease vs cold vs heart burn example

247
Q

oblique effect

A

ppl perceive horizontals and verticles easier than other orientations

248
Q

light-from-above assumption

A

assume light always comes from above so we perceive images with that in mind too

249
Q

semantic regularities in scene schemas

A

in a kitchen setting
we expect a bread
but when we are flashed with a pic with a letterbox there (looks v much like a loaf) we will assume we saw a bread and think it is bread

250
Q

(gestalt) law of good continuation

A

lines tend to be seen as following the smoothest path

251
Q

(gestalt) law of pragnanz

A

every stimulus pattern is seen so the resulting structure is as simple as possible

252
Q

(gestalt) law of similarity

A

similar things appear to be grouped together

253
Q

(gestalt) law of closure

A

tendency to see visual item as part of a larger object

254
Q

figure-ground

A

background vs foreground show different objects

255
Q

heuristics

A 
rule of thumb
mental shortcuts
provides best-guess solution
fast
often correct
256
Q

algorithm

A

procedure guaranteed to solve a problem
slow
definite result

257
Q

recognition-by-components theory

A

put together the smaller pieces to form the big picture

258
Q

geons

A

3d volumes, put together to form an object

36 diff variations present

259
Q

thatcher illusion

A

we can identify objects from many different orientations

260
Q

what and where pathways

A

temporal lobe: what (ventral) pathway, identifying

parietal lobe: where (dorsal) pathway, location

261
Q

attention

A

the ability to focus on specific stimuli or locations

262
Q

selective attention

A

attending to one thing while ignoring others

263
Q

divided attention

A

paying attention to more than one thing at a time

264
Q

distraction

A

one stimulus interfering with the processing of another stimulus

265
Q

cocktail party effect

A

the ability to focus on one stimulus while filtering out other stimuli

266
Q

Treisman’s Attenuation Model of Attention

A

msg -> attenuator -> dictionary unit -> memory

attenuator analyze msg based on characteristics, language, and meaning
attended msg -> dictionary unit (full strength)
unattended msg -> weak

267
Q

late processing model

A
  1. given an ambiguous sentence with 2 meanings
  2. have a biasing word in the unattended ear
  3. meaning of biasing word affected the participant’s interpretation of the sentence
268
Q

processing capacity

A

amount of info people can handle

269
Q

perceptual load

A

difficulty of a task

270
Q

overt attention

A

shifting attention from one place to another

271
Q

fixation

A

short pauses on points of interest

272
Q

saccades

A

rapid movements of the eyes from one place to another

273
Q

pre cueing

A

directing attention without moving the eyes

274
Q

covert attention

A

shifting attention while keeping eyes still

275
Q

exogenous attention

A

the redirection of attention toward an unexpected stimulus

276
Q

inattentional blindness

A
  • being unaware of clearly visible stimuli if not directing attention to them
  • a stimulus that is not attended to is not perceived
277
Q

binding

A

the process by which features such as color, form, motion, and location are combined to create our perception of a coherent object

278
Q

feature integration theory (FIT)

A

object | pre attentive | focused attentive | perception

  • pre attentive stage: automatic, occurs before we focus attention on an object
  • focused attentive stage: attention plays a key role, allows features to be combined correctly
279
Q

patient RM (attention)

A

Balint’s syndrome

inability to focus attention on indiv onjects, high number of illusory conjunctions reported

280
Q

illusory conjunctions

A
  • combining features of separate objects together

- occur because features and free-floating

281
Q

parallel process

A

identifying unique features

282
Q

serial process

A

identifying target among conjunctive items

283
Q

inductive reasoning

A
  • one of the primary mechanisms involved in making judgments
  • it is the process of drawing general conclusions based on specific observations and evidence
  • conclusions reached are probabilistic and not definitive
  • making predictions about what will happen based on what has happened in the past
  • strong inductive arguments result in conclusions that are more likely to be true
284
Q

factors contributing to the strength of an inductive argument

A
  • representativeness of observations: how well do the observations represent all members?
  • number of observations
  • quality of evidence: stronger evidence = stronger conclusion, consider scientific evidence
285
Q

availability heuristic

A
  • events that come to mind more easily are judged as being more probable than events that are less easily recalled
  • events that have been sensationalized in the media are more likely to cause this error
286
Q

illusory correlations

A
  • relationship between two events appear to exist, but in reality, there is no or weak relationship between the two, fool ourselves into thinking that 2 events are related
  • can result in stereotypes
287
Q

stereotypes

A

oversimplified generalization about a group or class of people (often focusing on the negatives)&raquo_space; selective attention to the stereotypical behaviors make these behaviors more “available”

288
Q

representative heuristic

A

the judgment of probability that object A belongs to class B by similarity and resemblance

289
Q

what makes people more prone to representative heuristic?

A
  1. resemblance
    - use of illusory correlations & stereotypes to make judgments
    - overlook base rates: the relative proportion of different classes in the population
  2. conjunction rule
    - states that the probability of conjunction of 2 events (A&B) cannot be higher than the probability of the single constituents (A/B)
  3. incorrectly assuming that small samples are representative
    - the law of large numbers states that larger sample sizes are more representative of the entire population
    - thus, small samples are less representative ∴ we cannot overgeneralize
290
Q

myside bias

A

people’s prior beliefs may have caused them to attend to info that corresponded with their beliefs and to disregard info that didn’t

291
Q

[Charles Lord, Capital punishment]

A
  • 1 group for, 1 against capital punishment
  • asked to read research studies (some provided evidence that capital punishment is a deterrent, while others say no effect)
  • those for capital punishment rated studies that say it is a deterrent as convincing
  • those against, rated studies as unconvincing
292
Q

confirmation bias

A
  • people look for info that conforms to their hypothesis and ignore info that refutes it
  • myside bias is a type of confirmation bias
  • broader as it holds true for any situation, not just opinions/attitudes
293
Q

[Fukushima flower radiation defect study]

A

tend to believe a piece of info as the truth even though there is no credible source or evidence = due to ppl not having access/don’t seek out resources to find out if the info is accurate or not

294
Q

[US invasion, Iraq hiding weapons study]

A
  • presented with a mock news story that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction
  • some received a correction notice, others did not
  • liberals: correction effectively reduced misperceptions
  • moderate-liberal & centralists: correction notice had no effect
  • conservatives: more likely to believe the misperception even after
    the correction
295
Q

backfire effect

A

an individual’s support for a particular
viewpoint could become stronger when faced with
corrective facts opposing their viewpoint (get defensive)

296
Q

inductive vs deductive reasoning

A

inductive reasoning: starts with specific cases and generalize to broad principles
deductive reasoning: starts with broad principles to make logical predictions about specific cases, determine whether a conclusion logically follows from statements (deduce something, from a bigger picture, I can deduce that this is the outcome)

297
Q

syllogisms

A

consists of 2 broad statements (premises), followed by a conclusion

298
Q

mental model of deductive reasoning

A

mental model: specific situation represented in a person’s mind that can be used to help determine the validity of syllogisms

  1. people create a model/imagined representation
  2. generate a tentative conclusion
  3. look for exceptions that might falsify the model modify the model
  4. if no more exceptions, conclude that the syllogism is valid
299
Q

advantages of mental model of deductive reasoning

A

+ can be used to assess a syllogism’s validity without training in the rules of logic
+ makes predictions that can be tested

300
Q

[Watson Fou-Card Problem]

A
  1. presented with 4 cards, E K 4 7, each card has a letter on one side, and one number on the other
  2. tasked to indicate which 2 cards need to be turned over to test the following rule:
    ~if there is a vowel on one side of the card,
    then there is an even number on the other side~
301
Q

falsification principle

A

to test a rule, it is necessary to look for situations that would falsify the rule (by testing not q)

302
Q

real world version of Watson Four-Card Problem

A
  • beer/drinking age
  • easier bc it involves things people are familiar with
  • make use of permissions/cheating schema, people are sensitive to situations in which permissions/regulations are involved (evolutionary pov)
303
Q

expected utility theory

A

if people have all the relevant info, they will make a decision that results in the maximum expected utility

304
Q

utility

A

outcomes that achieve a person’s goals

305
Q

advantages of using expected utility theory

A

has specific procedures that make it possible to determine which choice would result in the highest gain (following probabilities)
- but people don’t follow these procedures and are instead influenced by other considerations

306
Q

how do emotions affect decision making?

A
  • anxious people tend to avoid making decisions that could potentially lead to a large negative consequence
  • optimistic people are more likely to ignore negative info, focus on positive info, base their decisions on incomplete info
307
Q

incidental emotions

A

emotions that are not caused by having to make a decision
can be related to
- person’s general disposition (naturally a happy person)
- something that happened earlier (that caused them to feel happy)
- general environment (that made them feel happy)

308
Q

[Ultimatum Game]

A
  • 2 players (1 proposer, 1 responder)
  • proposer given a sum of money and gets to decide how to split the money
  • responder accepts and gets the money that was offered or rejects and no one gets anything
  • proposer can be human or computer
  • evenly split (5-5) or (7-3), acceptance rates for human and computer proposer were equal
  • when unfair offer was presented, less acceptance rates for human proposer, bc ppl felt that it was unfair (with human, less unfair if it was computer)
309
Q

neuroeconomics

A

combines research from fields of psych, econs, and neuroscience to study how brain activation is related to decisions that involve potential gains or losses

310
Q

framing effect

A

decisions are influenced by how the choices are stated/framed, the way a problem is stated can highlight some features of the situation (+/-)
when framed in terms of gains -> ppl are more risk averse (avoid risk)
when framed in terms of losses -> ppl are more risk-taking

311
Q

status quo bias

A

tendency to do nothing when faced with a decision

312
Q

which part of the brain is connected with negative emotional states (pain, distress, anger)

A

right anterior insula

313
Q

which part of the brain is important in decision making

A

prefrontal cortex

314
Q

what is a problem

A

a problem occurs when there is an obstacle between a present state and a goal and it is not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle, it is a situation in which you need to accomplish a goal and the solution is not immediately obvious

315
Q

gestalt approach to problem solving

A

problem solving is about …

(1) how people represent a problem in their mind
(2) how solving a problem involves reorganization or restructuring of this representation

316
Q

restructuring

A

perceiving the object and then representing it in a different way, the process of changing the problem’s representation

317
Q

insight

A

any sudden comprehension, realization, or problem that involves a reorganization of a person’s mental representation of a stimulus, situation, or event to yield an interpretation that was not initially obvious

318
Q

fixation (functional fixedness)

A

tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of the problem that keeps them from arriving at a solution

319
Q

functional fixedness

A

focusing on familiar functions or uses of an object

320
Q

mental set

A

preconceived notion about how to approach a problem which is determined by a person’s experience of what has worked in the past

321
Q

Newell & Simon’s information processing approach

A

described problem solving as a process that involves search

322
Q

initial state

A

conditions at the beginning of the problem

323
Q

goal state

A

solution to the problem

324
Q

operators

A

actions that take the problem from one state to the other

325
Q

intermediate state

A

conditions after each step is made toward solving a problem, all the intermediate states make up the operators

326
Q

problem space

A

all possible states that could occur when solving a problem

327
Q

means-end analysis

A

to reduce the difference between the initial and goal states

  1. compare current state to goal state
  2. set goal: solve the difference
  3. solve the goal from step 2
  4. if operator (trial) cannot be applied select a new goal (by changing your way of solving)
328
Q

subgoals

A

intermediate states that are closer to the goal

329
Q

Kohler study on insight

A

Monkey and banana problem

  • banana hanging from the ceiling and crates on the floor
  • monkey use trial-and-error and finally is able to solve the problem when it has insight
330
Q

Metcalfe & Wiebe

A

solving insight vs non-insight problems
how “warm” do you feel to solving the problem
- for insight problems, there is a jump (a sudden awareness)
- for non-insight, it is a gradual incremental progress

331
Q

Duncker’s Candle Problem

A

to showcase functional fixedness (of the matchbox)

332
Q

studies to show functional fixedness

A

Duncker’s candle problem

Maier’s two-string problem

333
Q

Water Jug Problem

A

showcase challenge of having a mental set

334
Q

different heuristics people use to solve a problem

A
  • brute force
  • hill climbing
  • working backwards
  • means-end analysis
335
Q

think aloud protocol

A

participants are asked to say out loud what they are thinking, not describe what they are doing, but to verbalize new thoughts as they occur, the goal is to determine what info the person is attending to while solving a problem

336
Q

analogical problem solving

A

using the solution to a similar problem to guide solution of a new problem

337
Q

analogical transfer

A

the transfer from one problem to another

338
Q

source problem

A

another problem that shares similarities with the target problem

339
Q

target problem

A

problem to be solved

340
Q

3 steps to analogical problem solving

A
  1. noticing the relationship between the source and target problem
  2. mapping the correspondence – which parts in the source corresponds to the target
  3. applying the mapping to generate a parallel solution
341
Q

analogical encoding

A

process by which 2 problems are compared and similarities between them are determined
when presented with a problem and a solution A/B, when you are trying to solve a new problem, you tend to use solution it was previously paired with (A/B respectively)

342
Q

analogical paradox

A

difficult to apply analogies in lab settings but ppl use analogies in real-world settings more often

343
Q

define experts

A

people who, by devoting a large amount of time to learning about a field and practicing and applying that learning, have become acknowledged as being extremely knowledgeable or skilled in that particular field

344
Q

expert vs novice

A

experts usually faster than novice
1i. experts possess more knowledge about their fields
- store a lot of previous patterns and experiences
1ii. expert’s knowledge is organized differently
- rather than grouping similarities at face value (surface features), experts group problems based on more meaningful context (structural features)
1iii. experts spend more time analyzing problems
experts do not dive straight into solving a problem

345
Q

pitfalls of experts

A
  • experts are less open to new ways of looking at problems
  • when confronting a problem that requires flexible thinking – a problem whose solution may involve rejecting the usual procedures in favor of other procedures that might not normally be used
346
Q

divergent thinking

A

thinking that is open-ended, involving a large number of potential “solutions”

347
Q

a creative solution must be …

A

useful, anything that is in some way novel and has potential value or utility – but this does not explain creativity in the arts

348
Q

practical creativity

A

includes the idea that the solution has some form of value and utility
examples:
- velcro
- Odon’s device for stuck babies in the birth canal

349
Q

creative cognition

A

Ronald Finke developed a technique to train ppl to think creatively

350
Q

Basadur problem solving process 4 stages

A 
I. problem generation
- problem finding
- fact finding
II. problem formulation
- problem definition
- idea finding
III. problem solving
- evaluation selection
- planning
IV. solution implementation
- selling idea
- taking action

usually in a cycle

351
Q

which part of the brain groups lower level info into meaningful patterns?

A

left anterior temporal lobe

used transcranial direct current stimulation to deactivate the right ATL, people tend to be able to “think outside the box” when only the left ATL was active

352
Q

findings of Kounios on insight and non-insight brain area activation

A

insight: frontal lobe
non-insight: occipital lobe (toward the back of the brain)

“the prepared mind” – these were seen on EEG prior to solving the respective problems

353
Q

Baird & coworkers

A

did an experiment to connect mind wandering and creativity
- incubation: phenomenon of getting ideas after taking a break

  1. 2 minutes to think of unusual uses for common objects (alternative uses task AUT)
  2. 12 minute incubation period (either difficult task or easy task to vary mind wandering)
  3. redo AUT,
    - those who did easy task, had more mind wandering, thus improved in the redo AUT
354
Q

executive control network

A
  • involved in directing attention as a person is carrying out tasks
  • activity in this region increases when people are involved in tasks that require attention
  • plays a crucial role in creativity
355
Q

what do creative people do?

A
  • daydream (make space for unstrcutured thoughts)
  • solitude (reduce distarctions, give themselves time)
  • mindfulness (focused attention meditation, open monitoring meditation)
356
Q

generating -> evaluating ideas

A

Ellamil & coworkers

  • regions of default mode network and executive control network more strongly activated during idea evaluation
  • concluded that activity in DMN and ECN was coordinated during creative evaluation
357
Q

memory

A

process involved in retaining, retrieving, and using information about stimuli

358
Q

sensory memory

A

initial stage, holds all incoming info for seconds or fraction of a second

eg, in movies (snapshots of pictures but we make it into ancoherent smooth video)

359
Q

persistence of vision

A

continued perception of a visual stimulus even after it is no longer present
eg: light trail

360
Q

STM

A

holds 5-9, (7+-2)

15-20 seconds

361
Q

STM peterson & peterson (Brown peterson test)

A

3 letters 3 numbers
count the number backwards by intervals of 3
recall the 3 letters
after 3 secs delay (of counting numbers) 80% accurate
after 18 sec dalay 12% accurate

362
Q

chunking

A

chunk is defined as a collection of elements that are strongly associated with one another but are weakly associated with elements in other chunks

363
Q

working memory

A

limited capacity, temporary storage

manipulation of information

364
Q

Baddeley

A
  • central executive
  • phonological loop
  • visuo-spatial sketchpad
  • episodic buffer
365
Q

phonological loop

A

phonological store: buffer for auditory info

articulatory rehearsal: refresh and transfer

366
Q

word length effect

A

shorter words easier to recall
language with shorter articulation (syllables) easier to recall
bc faster to rehear after remembering

367
Q

phonological similarity effect

A

easier to recall words that do not sound similar to each other (do not rhyme)

368
Q

articulatry suprression

A

have participant repeat a word/irrelevant sound then asked to recall
pevent them from rehearsing
eleminates the word length effect and phonological similarity effect

369
Q

visuo-spatial sketchpad

A

holds visual and spatial info

if the image is roated in a lesser degree, easier and faster to identify if 2 are the same or not

370
Q

central executive

A

attention controller, controls suppression of irrelevant info
focus, divide, switch attention

371
Q

episodic buffer

A

a way of increasing storage capacity and a gateway to communicate to LTM

372
Q

LTM

A

can hold large amount of info for years and even decades

373
Q

encoding

A

storing info in long term memory

374
Q

retrieval

A

process of remembering info

375
Q

control process

A

dynamic processes associated with the structural features that can be controlled by the person
eg; rehearsal, strategies that help you rmb

376
Q

Sperling experiment

A

3x4 numbers and letters
recall
try again but only asked to recall a specific row

recall all: 33%
one row: 75%
delay one row: 25%

377
Q

proactive interference

A

occurs when info learned prev and stored in LTM interferes w learning of new info

378
Q

evaluation of modal model

A

oversimplified
claims STM is modality free
control/manipulation process not clearly specified
claims rehearsal necessary for transfer to LTM

379
Q

primacy effect

A

rmb words that were stated first better

more time to rehearse

380
Q

recency effect

A

rmb words at the end of the list better

words stored in STM

381
Q

patient HM

A

hippocampus removal
x LTM
ok STM
can learn new skill but thinks hes doing it for the first time always

382
Q

patient KF

A

damaged parietal lobe
ok LTM
x STM
STM only hold up to 2 things

383
Q

patient KC

A

hippocampus
lost episodic
ok semantic

384
Q

patient LP

A

lost semantic

ok episodic

385
Q

remember/know procedure

A

10 yrs rmb > know

50 yrs know > rmb

386
Q

priming

A

the presentation of one stimulus changes the way a person responds to another stimulus

387
Q

propaganda effect

A

more likely to rate statements they have read or heard before as true simply because they have been exposed to it before

388
Q

cannot rmb anything after amnesia

lose ability to learn

A

anterograde amnesia

389
Q

memory loss before brain damage

A

retrograde amnesia

390
Q

primacy effect and recency effect

u shaped curve

A

serial position curve

391
Q

explicit LTM includes

A

episodic, semantic

392
Q

implicit LTM includes

A

priming, procedural, conditioning

393
Q

who discovered the levels of processing theory

A

Craig

394
Q

levels of processing theory

A

letter
rhyme
semantic

395
Q

memory is better when you link words to yourself

A

self-reference effect

396
Q

generate info yourself better than passively reading or receiving it

A

generation effect

397
Q

free recall

A

general qn and asked to remember the details

398
Q

cued recall

A

given some trigger words

399
Q

recognition

A

like in mcq

400
Q

encoding specificity

A

environmental context dependent memory

learn in water, better recall in water
learn on land, better recall on land

401
Q

memory and emotion

A

when a memory is associated with a strong emotion, it is better able to be recalled

402
Q

flashbulb memories

A

memory for cicumstances surrounding how a person heard about an event

  • very complete
  • very accurate
  • immune to forgetting

details fade but they believe flashbulb memory is accurate and more vivid (confident)

403
Q

factors that determine what gets into LTM

A
  • repetition
  • effort/desire to learn
  • emotion (impt)
  • depth of process (semantic meaning) (impt)
404
Q

faster to remember something you have already learnt

A

savings in relearning

405
Q

to improve memory and learning

A
  • distributed learning
  • organise
  • generate and test
  • take breaks
  • elaborate
  • encoding specificity
406
Q

information processing idea came from

A

computer as an analogy
influenced by emergence of computers
info proceeds through a series of systems and stages/steps

407
Q

Tarr geon experiment

A

when geon is rotated to larger angle, it is harder to identify the shape (take longer to identify)

408
Q

who discovered what and where pathways and how

A

Mishkin & Ungerleider

brain ablation (remove part of thd brain) on monkeys

409
Q

what and how pathway

A

ventral: what
dorsal: how in humans (instead of where)

410
Q

types of models of selective attention

A
  1. early selection: broadbent’s filter model
  2. intermediate selection: treisman’s attenuation theory
  3. late selection: mackay
411
Q

Stroop test

A

colour of the word does not match the definition, supposed to name the colour of the word, not read the word
hard bc you can’t help but pay attention to the word meaning

412
Q

posner

A

precueing task

413
Q

schneider & shiffrin

A

divided attention
1. hold info about a target stimuli
2. pay attention to a bunch of other stimuli to determine if the target is among the distractors
at the start only 55% accurate, took 600 trials to reach 90% accuracy
practice made it possible for participants to divide attention -> became automatic processing

real world eg. driving or getting ready in the morning

414
Q

Egly et al.

A

participants saw 2 side by side rectangles followed by a cue target
RT was fastest when target appeared where the cue was followed by when it was in the same rectangle (even faster than same area but diff rectangle) -> same object advantage

415
Q

Cahill & McGaugh

A

memory and emotion

can rmb the story (slide show ppt) after 2 weeks bc the story evoke strong emotions

416
Q

Brown & Kulik

A

flashbulb memory

asked abt Kennedy assasination

417
Q

who did the phoneme restoration effect study

A

Warren

cognitive psych finals (1 decks)

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