Cognitive explanations

Question 1

What was Kohlberg’s theory of gender constancy?

Answer 1

Kohlberg’s cognitive theory of gender stems from the idea that children’s understanding of gender becomes more sophisticated with age. This does not come from experience (schemas) but from biological maturation of the brain. Therefore the understanding of gender runs alongside intellectual development.

Question 2

What are the three stages?

Answer 2

Identity, stability, constancy.

Question 3

Gender Identity?

Answer 3

At around the age of 2 children can correctly identify themselves as a boy or girl.
At age 3, most can identify other people as men or women.
Their understanding only stretches to a simple label and they often do not understand that gender is fixed. For example a two year old boy may say “When I grow up I want to be a mummy”.

Question 4

Gender stability?

Answer 4

At around 4 children realise that they will stay the same gender over time but do not understand gender is constant in different situations.
They may become confused by changes in appearance. For example, they may describe a man with long hair as a woman.

Question 5

Gender constancy?

Answer 5

At around 6 years old, children realise gender remains constant over time and situation, and can apply this to other people.
They are no longer fooled by changes in appearance.
Children will seek out gender appropriate role models to identify with and imitate. Therefore this stage directly connects with social learning theory.

Question 6

What did Kohlberg suggest happens after gender constancy?

Answer 6

Kohlberg said that once a child has fully developed and internalised the concept of gender, they actively seek out evidence to confirm the concept. The tendency for stereotyping occurs at this age.

Question 7

Strengths of gender constancy theory: research support?

Answer 7

evidence suggests that gender stereotyping does occur at age 6 as Kohlberg predicted. Damon 1977 told children a story about a boy who liked to play with dolls. The four year olds said it was fine for George to play with dolls, but the 6 year olds thought it was wrong. They had started to develop rules for what boys and girls can do. This suggests they have achieved gender constancy.

Question 8

Limitations of gender constancy theory: contradictory evidence?

Answer 8

other research challenges the evidence for stereotyping. Bussey and Bandura 1999 reported that children as young as four reported feeling good about playing with gender appropriate toys and feeling bad about the opposite. This contradicts Kohlberg’s theory.

Question 9

Limitations of gender constancy theory: methodlogy?

Answer 9

Bem 1989 criticised the method used in the studies studying the link between cognitive development and gender. In the USA culture the way we identify different genders is through appearance, such as clothes or hairstyles. But Bem argued the most appropriate way to identify gender is genitalia, which many children do not understand. Bem showed that 40% of 3-5 year olds were able to demonstrate consistency when shown pictures of naked men and women. Therefore methodology may misrepresent what they know.

Question 10

Limitations of gender constancy theory: degrees of constancy?

Answer 10

Martin et al 2002 praises the theory but says exactly when and how constancy occurs is unclear. He stated there may be different degrees of constancy. Child may first realise the importance of gender in choosing friends for example, before they are six. There may be a second degree of constancy where children respond to gender norms when choosing clothes or attitudes. Therefore may be a more gradual process than Kohlberg thought.

Question 11

Gender constancy theory: nature/nurture?

Answer 11

Kohlberg emphasised the changes in the brain that affected cognitions surrounding gender. This supports nature. However, Kohlberg claimed children search for confirmation of their gender from the environment but fails to account for the socialisation process. Bussey and Bandura claim social processes have a more influential effect on gender. This supports nurture.

Question 12

Who theorised gender schema theory?

Answer 12

Martin and Halverson 1981.

Question 13

What is gender schema theory?

Answer 13

Martin and Halverson 1981 also believed the understanding of gender becomes more sophisticated with age, and children develop this understanding by actively seeking learning.

Question 14

What is a gender schema?

Answer 14

an organised set of beliefs and expectations related to gender that are derived from experience.
It is a generalised representation of everything we know about our gender and gender-appropriate behaviours.

Question 15

How does a schema influence gender?

Answer 15

Such schemas guide a person’s understanding of their own gender and stereotyping gender behaviours.

Question 16

When does the schema start to develop?

Answer 16

According to Martin and Halverson, when a child achieves gender identity at age 2-3, they begin to search the environment for information to develop their gender schemas.

Question 17

How does gender approproate behaviour develop through the schema?

Answer 17

Gender schemas expand to include lots of behaviours and personality traits.
They are likely to form from stereotypes, as the child interacts with adults and other children.
For example, boys play with trucks and girls play with dolls.This directs the framework of what the child understands about themselves.

Question 18

Are gender schemas fixed at age 6?

Answer 18

Therefore children have very fixed and stereotypical ideas about what is appropriate behaviour for their gender, by the age of 6.
They do not alter their schema when encountering inappropriate behaviour.

Question 19

How do ingroups and outgroups affect gender?

Answer 19

Once a child has identified with their ingroup (same gender), they positively evaluate their ingroup and tend to avoid behaviours of the outgroup.
They have a much better understanding of their own gender and will pay more attention to information relevant to their gender identity to build the schema.

Question 20

When do more elaborate schemas develop?

Answer 20

When the child is around 8, they start to develop elaborate schemas for both genders. This is when gender constancy is achieved.

Question 21

Strengths of gender schema theory: martin and halverson 1983?

Answer 21

children under 6 were more likely to remember photographs of stereotypical gender appropriate behaviour (women washing plates) than inappropriate behaviours (woman fixing her car), when tested a week later. They also tended to change the gender of the person in the photo so that the behaviour was now appropriate. Gender schema predicts this so is support.

Question 22

Strengths of gender schema theory: cultural differences?

Answer 22

Cherry 2019 argued that the gender schema process can account for culturally appropriate gender behaviour. The theory explains how gender schemas are transmitted through members of a society/culture and how these differences come about. Other theories cannot account for this.

Question 23

Limitations of gender schema theory: Zosuls 2009?

Answer 23

a longitudinal study of 82 children looking at the onset of gender identity. Data was from a twice-weekly report from the mother and videotapes. The labelling of themselves as a boy or a girl happens on average at 19 months, as soon as they start to communicate. This suggests gender identity happens earlier than Martin and Halverson suggested.

Question 24

Limitations of gender schema theory: outdated?

Answer 24

traditional gender stereotypes are no longer relevant today therefore it is impossible to divide ingroups and outgroups in a traditional male/female. Some children reject their ingroup schemas, not all behave in a way that is consistent with the schema. So they theory is deterministic in that respect as it does not acknowledge choice.