Cognitive (core) Flashcards
Sperling
Aim: To test the iconic memory in the multi store memory model with the partial report technique.
Procedure:
Participants presented with a tachitoscopic image of a grid with of numbers and letters 4x3.
- Image flashed 50 seconds.
2 conditions:
1. Whole report. Particpants given an empty grid and told to fill it in.
2. Partial report condition: Participants only required to remember one row. The row they had to chose based on sound (high tone first row, middle tone middle row, low tone last row.)
Results: Whole report 4/12 characters remembered.
Partial report 75-100% of digits remembered.
Conclusion: After we have been exposed to a visual stimulus, its trace stays in our memory for a short period of time.
Conrad and Hull
Aim: to demonstrate phonological similarity effect in the working memory model.
Phonological similarity effect: You’ll remember letters that sound different than those who sound the same.
Procedure: Recall list of letters. Some were phonologically similar (BDCP) other not (FHRX)
Results: Phonologically similar letters were less recalled than phonologically different letters. This is because similar letters sound the same and can get confusing.
Conclusion: Demonstrates how the phonological loop works. Idea that memory for speech material uses sound based storage system.
Bugelski and Alampay
Aim: To investigate top down processing (when prior knowledge shapes your views)
Procedure: Showed an ambigious picture after being exposed to either animal or human pictures.
Results: People saw a rat when previously exposed to animal pictures and people saw a man when previously showed human pictures (faces).
Conclusion: Top down processing shapes new knowledge or views someone might obtain. Shows how prior knowledge creates schemas.
Anderson and Pichert
Aim: To test the influence of schemas on the retrieval of information.
Procedure:
- Assigned either homebuyer or burglar perspective
- Participants read a 373 word passage of two boys skipping school.
- Filler task
- Given a blank page and asked to write down what they remembered.
- Filler task.
Two options:
1. Kept the same perspective
2. Changed perspective
- Read the story again and asked to write it down again.
Results:
1st recall: Burglar recalled more burglar important info and homebuyer more homebuyer important info.
2nd recall: Changed perspective: Recalled more the first one.
Same perspective: Recalled their perspective better.
Conclusion: Schemas influence the retrieval of information and what we deem worth it or not.
Albarracin et al
Aim: To investigate theory of reason action in condom use.
Theory of reason action: Outcomes influence our actions.
Procedure: meta analysis 96 sets of data questionnaires.
Results: People were more likely to use condom if they had formed a corresponding intention.
Wason
Aim: To test heuristics of confirmation bias and errors people make in logical tasks.
Procedure:
- Had 4 cards (A,7,K,4)
- Told a rule “Every vowel has an even number on the other side”.
- Instructed to prove or dismantel the rule by only turning 2 cards.
Results: People turned A and 4 (wrong).
A: If theres an even number then the rule is proven but if theres an odd number then its dismanteled.
K: Doesn’t prove anything.
4: If there’s a vowel on the other side it proves the rule but if there’s a consonant it doesn’t since the rule doesn’t say consonants can’t have even numbers.
7: If there’s a vowel, it dismantels the rule, and if theres a consonant on the other side it tells you nothing”.
The only 2 cards that can refute the rule are A and 7.
Conclusion: People’s response was wrong because they used heuristics.
Loftus and Palmer
Aim: To investigate the effect of leading questions in the memory recall of information.
Procedure:
Experiment 1:
Split into groups (smashed, bumped, collided, contacted, hit)
- Shown video of car crash.
- Questionnaire: Leading question “at what speed were the cars going when they (verb) against each other?”
Results: Verbs such as smashed got higher results while contacted got lower estimates.
2nd experiment.
150 students did experiment 1 again.
A week later, asked if they remembered whether there was broken glass in the video.
Results:
Contacted –> No glass
Smashed –> Glass
Conclusion: Leading questions can change the perception you have of a certain event.
Freedman and Fraser
Aim: To test the theory of cognitive dissonance through induced compliance paradigm.
Theory of cognitive dissonance: mental stress caused by inconsistency between info.
Induced compliance paradigm: Tendency for people to agree with doing something to prevent cognitive dissonance.
Procedure: Sign a petition if they were for or against driving safely. (controlled group signed no petition).
- 2 weeks later asked to put a big sign in their front lawn saying “Drive safely”.
Results: Controlled group 20% put up sign.
Experimental group: 55% put up sign.
Conclusion: Cognitive dissonance caused people to sign the petition in order to avoid it.
Brown and Kulik
Aim: To test flashbulb memories
Procedure: 40 americans, 40 African Americans. Ages 20-60.
- Questionnaires about Martin Luther King Jr assasination and John F. Kennedy assasination.
Results: Caucasians remembered more John F Kennedy, African Americans remembered more Martin Luther King Jr.
Conclusion: Flashbulb memories are caused by impact. You will remember something based on how emotionally arousing it is to you.
Schaefer et al
Aim: To test if visual images are important in gaining flashbulb memories.
Procedure: 38 participants: 11 delayed group, 27 in the live group.
- Live group had seen 9/11 live on the news.
- Delayed group had seen 9/11 hours after it happened.
- Questionnaires about what they remembered.
Results: Live group remembered more.
Conclusion: Seeing events live could create flashbulb memories.
Kuhn et al
Aim: To test if videogaming changes adult brains.
Procedure: 150 participants. Controlled group didn’t play.
- Played Super Mario 64 for 2 months 30 mins daily.
- MRI before and after playing.
Results: Increased grey matter in cerebellum, hippocampus and prefrontal cortex in gaming group. –> spatial memory related.
Conclusion: Videogaming improves spatial memory.
Sparrow et al
Aim: To see if transactional memory impacts the recall of information.
Procedure: Asked to type 40 trivia facts in the computer.
- Told computer will remember (one group would be told to remember the facts and the other not).
- Told computer wouldn’t remember (Asked to remember, not told anything).
Results: people in the first group would remember less information than people in the second group.
Conclusion: Transactive memory impacts our recall and retrieval of informationl.
