Cognitive Biases Flashcards
1
Q
define reciprocity
A
Responding to a positive action with another positive action, rewarding kind actions.
2
Q
Reciprocity increases chances of compliance by____
A
2x
3
Q
T/F Time is not considered a form of reciprocity
A
F
4
Q
T/F Energy depletion does not reduce moral discipline
A
F
5
Q
How can you maintain trust throughout an argument or discussion?
A
Present both sides of the issue
6
Q
What would indicate that someone is self-conscious about their weight?
A
Covering or smoothing over the area
7
Q
Crossed arms, legs or both = ?
A
Fear, defensiveness
8
Q
Touching hair =
A
anxiety
9
Q
Head/chin pointed down =
A
hostility
10
Q
Hand on face (index up cheek) =
A
critically thinking
11
Q
Covering mouth =
A
lying
12
Q
open palms
A
trust
13
Q
Palms down
A
authority
14
Q
Crows feet smile =
A
genuine happiness (real smile)
15
Q
T/F laughing feels the similar to doing drugs
A
T
16
Q
Sitting with elbows resting on armrest = ?
A
strong, upright
17
Q
Arms dropped to side when sitting = ?
A
defeated and/or humble
18
Q
Raised steeple (when speaking) = ?
A
confidence, expectation of success
19
Q
Lowered steeple (when speaking) = ?
A
confidence, expectation of success
20
Q
showing thumbs in any way =
A
sign of superiority and smugness
21
Q
Hands to head or face
A
possible lying
22
Q
Full body fidgeting =
A
80% probability of lying
23
Q
aggressive, defensive, blaming language, convincing, etc = ?
A
very possible lie
24
Q
How long does it take for lie signals to manifest as a result of a stimulus?
A
less than 5 seconds
25
What word can we add to a sentence that significantly increases compliance
because
26
When should a higher price or more expensive option be presented?
first
27
Consistency principle
After making a choice or taking a stand, personal and interpersonal pressures force us to behave consistently with it.
28
T/F Positive comments produce just as much liking for flatterer when they are untrue as when they are true.
T
29
What are the five elements of social attraction
1. Physical Attractiveness
2. Similarity
3. Flattery
4. Positive or negative associations
30
T/F the strength of a social bond is 10% more likely to produce a product sale then the preference for the product itself.
F 100% more likely
31
When it comes to following trusting authority figures, what two factors come into play
1. Titles
| 2. Clothing or appearance
32
What's a good way to popularize certain information?
Censor it and make the censorship public. People like what they can't have
33
define the pluralistic ignorance effect
a situation in which a majority of group members privately reject a norm, but incorrectly assume that most others accept it, and therefore go along with it.
34
What words and physical movements make your speech more persuasive?
nod your head while you are talking
| say "believe me", "its true", "obviously", "clearly", etc.
35
Affect Heuristic
A mental shortcut that allows people to make decisions quickly by bringing their emotional response into play. They make decisions according to their gut feeling.
Researchers have found that when people have a pleasant feeling about something, they see the benefits as high and the risks as low, and vice versa
36
anchoring
A cognitive bias that describes the human tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information offered (the “anchor”) when making decisions.
For example, an initial price offered for a used car sets the standard for the rest of the negotiation.
37
loss aversion
refers to people's tendency to prefer avoiding losses to acquiring equivalent gains: it is better to not lose $5 than to find $5.
38
Availability heuristic
A mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a given person’s mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method or decision.
People tend to heavily weigh their judgments toward more recent information, making new opinions biased toward the latest news.
39
which job is more dangerous – being a police officer or a logger? While high-profile police shootings might lead you to think that cops have a more dangerous job, statistics actually show that loggers are more likely to die on the job than cops. This is an example of
Availability heuristic
40
Bounded rationality
The idea that in decision-making, people are limited by the information they have, the cognitive limitations of their minds, and the finite time. As a result, they seek for a “good enough” decision and tend to make a satisficing (rather than maximizing or optimizing) choice.
41
during shopping when people buy something that they find acceptable, although that may not necessarily be their optimal choice. This is an example of
bounded rationality
42
certainty effect
When people overweight outcomes that are considered certain relative to outcomes that are merely possible.
The certainty effect makes people prefer 100% as a reference point relative to other percentages, even though 100% may be an illusion of certainty. Lower percentages or probabilities can be more beneficial in the long run.
43
people prefer a 100% discount on a cup of coffee every 10 days to other more frequent but lower discount offer, even though the second option may save them more money in the long run. is an example of
certainty effect
44
choice overload
A cognitive process in which people have a difficult time making a decision when faced with many options.
Too many choices might cause people to delay making decisions or avoid making them altogether.
45
For example, a famous study found that consumers were 10 times more likely to purchase jam on display when the number of jams available was reduced from 24 to 6.
Less choice, more sales. More choice, fewer sales.
this is an example of
choice overload
46
cognitive dissonance
A mental discomfort that occurs when people’s beliefs do not match up with their behaviors.
47
when people smoke (behavior) and they know that smoking causes cancer (cognition). this is an example of
cognitive dissonance
48
principle of committment
The tendency to be consistent with what we have already done or said we will do in the past, particularly if this is public.
49
researchers asked people if they would volunteer to help with the American Cancel Society. Of those who received a cold call, 4% agreed. A second group was called a few days prior and asked if they would hypothetically volunteer. When the actual request came later, 31% of them agreed. this is an example of what
committment
50
Confirmation bias
The tendency to search for or interpret information in the way that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs, leading to statistical errors.
When people would like a certain idea to be true, they end up believing it to be true. They are motivated by wishful thinking.
51
a person with a low self-esteem is highly sensitive to being ignored by other people, and they constantly monitor for signs that people might not like them.
confirmation bias
52
decision fatigue
A lower quality of decisions made after a long session of decision making.
Repetitive decision-making tasks drain people’s mental resources, therefore they tend to take the easiest choice – keeping the status quo.
53
researchers studied parole decisions made by experienced judges and revealed that the chances of a prisoner being granted parole depended on the time of the day that judges heard the case.
65% of cases were granted parole in the morning and fell dramatically (sometimes to zero) within each decision session over the next few hours. The rate returned back to 65% after a lunch break and fell again. this is an example of
decision fatigue
54
dunning-kruger effect
A cognitive bias in which people who are ignorant or unskilled in a given domain tend to believe they are much more competent than they are.
In simple words, “people who are too stupid to know how stupid they are”.
55
a nationwide survey found that 21% of Americans believe that it’s ‘very likely’ that they’ll become millionaires within the next 10 years. this is an example of
dunning-kruger effect
56
present bias
The tendency of people to want things now rather than later, as the desired result in the future is perceived as less valuable than one in the present.
57
a research found that a $68 payment right now is just as attractive as a $100 payment in 12 months. this is an example of
present bias
58
diversification bias
People seek more variety when they choose multiple items for future consumption than when they make choices sequentially on an ‘in the moment’ basis.
59
before people are going on vacation, they add classical, rock and pop music to their playlist but eventually end up listening to their favorite rock music.
diversification bias
60
willpower depletion
people have a limited supply of willpower, and it decreases with overuse. Willpower draws down mental energy – it’s a muscle that can be exercised to exhaustion.
61
research showed that people who initially resisted the temptation of chocolates were subsequently less able to persist on a difficult and frustrating puzzle task. Additionally, when people gave a speech that included beliefs contrary to their own, they were also less able to persist on the difficult puzzle.
willpower depletion
62
elimination by aspects
A decision-making technique. When people face with multiple options, they first identify a single feature that is most important to them. When an item fails to meet the criteria they have established, they cross the item off their list of options. Different features are applied until a single ‘best’ option is left.
63
a consumer may first compare cars on the basis of safety, then gas mileage, price, style, etc, until only one option remains.
elimination by aspects
64
hot-cold empathy gap
We have trouble imagining how we would feel in other people’s shoes.
We are also not good at imaging how other people would respond to things because we assume they would respond in the same way we would.
65
people post videos of their kids or bragging about their latest business success on Facebook assuming that their friends would appreciate it and be happy for them. Unfortunately, this often provokes negative feelings and makes their facebook friends resentful, angry or sad.
hot-cold empathy gap
66
endowment effect
Once people own something (or have a feeling of ownership) they irrationally overvalue it, regarding of its objective value.
People feel the pain of loss twice as strongly as they feel pleasure at an equal gain, and they fall in love with what they already have and prepare to pay more to retain it.
67
scientists randomly divided participants into buyers and sellers and gave the sellers coffee mugs as gifts. Then they asked the sellers for how much they would sell the mug and asked the buyers for how much they would buy it.
Results showed that the sellers placed a significantly higher value on the mugs than the buyers did.
endowment effect
68
Fear of Missing out FOMO
An anxious feeling that can happen when you fear that other people might be having rewarding experiences that you’re missing.
Many people have been preoccupied with the idea that someone, somewhere, is having a better time, making more money, and leading a more exciting life.
69
Framing effect
A cognitive bias, in which people react to a particular choice in different ways depending on how it is presented, as a loss or as a gain.
People tend to avoid risk when a positive frame is presented but seek risks when a negative frame is presented
70
eople are more likely to enjoy meat labeled 75% lean meat as opposed to 25% fat, or use condoms advertised as being 95% effective as opposed to having a 5% risk of failure.
framing effect
71
gamblers fallacy
The mistaken belief that, if something happens more frequently than normal during a certain period, it will happen less frequently in the future, or that, if something happens less frequently than normal during a certain period, it will happen more frequently in the future.
72
f you are playing roulette and the last four spins of the wheel have led to the ball’s landing on black, you may think that the next ball is more likely than otherwise to land on red.
gambler's fallacy
73
T/F it takes 21 days to start a new habit
F it takes 66 days
74
halo effect
A cognitive bias in which our overall impression of a person influences how we feel and think about his or her character.
We assume that because people are good at doing A, they will be good at doing B and C too.
Your overall impression of a person (“She is nice!”) impacts your evaluation of that person’s specific traits (“She is also smart!”).
75
eople tend to rate attractive individuals more favorably for their personality traits or characteristics than those who are less attractive. this is an example of
halo effect
76
Hedonic adaptation
People quickly return to their original level of happiness, despite major positive or negative events or life changes.
When good things happen, we feel positive emotions but they don’t usually last. The excitement of purchasing a new car or getting a promotion at work is temporary.
77
One study showed that despite initial euphoria, lottery winners were no happier than non-winners eighteen months later.
hedonic adaptation
78
herd behavior
The tendency for individuals to mimic the actions (rational or irrational) of a larger group. Individually, however, most people would not necessarily make the same choice
79
n the late 1990s investors were investing huge amounts of money into Internet-related companies, even though most of them did not have structured business models. Their driving force was the reassurance they got from seeing so many others do the same.
herd behavior
80
hindsight bias
The tendency of people to overestimate their ability to have predicted an outcome that could not possibly have been predicted.
A psychological phenomenon is which people believe that an event was more predictable than it actually was, and can result in an oversimplification in cause and effect.
81
after the great recession of 2007, many analysts explained that all the signs of the financial bubble were there. If the signs had been that obvious, how come almost no one saw it coming in real time?
hindsight bias
82
IKEA effect
A cognitive bias in which people place a disproportionately high value on products they partially created.
83
participants who built a simple storage box themselves were willing to pay much more for the box than a group of participants who merely inspected a fully built box.
IKEA effect
84
Less is better effect
When low-value options are valued more highly than high-value options.
This effect occurs only when the options are evaluated separately. This way the evaluations of objects are influenced by attributes which are easy to evaluate rather those which are important.
85
A person giving an expensive $45 scarf as a gift was perceived to be more generous than one giving a $55 cheap coat.
An overfilled ice cream serving in a small cup with 7 oz of ice cream was valued more than an underfilled serving in a large cup with 8 oz of ice cream.
examples of
less is better effect
86
licensing effect
When people allow themselves to indulge after doing something positive first.
87
Drinking a diet coke with a cheeseburger can lead one to subconsciously discount the negative attributes of the meal’s high caloric and cholesterol content.
Going to the gym can lead us to ride the elevator to the second floor.
licensing effect
88
Loss is _____ more powerful than gaining
2x
89
optimism bias
A cognitive bias that causes people to believe that they are at a lesser risk of experiencing a negative event compared to others.
When it comes to predicting what will happen to us tomorrow, next week, or fifty years from now, we overestimate the likelihood of positive events.
90
, smokers tend to feel they are less likely than other individuals who smoke to be afflicted with lung cancer. Similarity, motorists tend to feel they are less likely to be involved in a car accident than is the average driver.
optimism bias
91
overconfidence effect
We systematically overestimate our knowledge and our ability to predict.
Overconfidence measures the difference between what people really know and what they think they know.
It turns out the experts suffer even more from the overconfidence effect than laypeople do.
92
Studies have found that over 90% of US drivers rate themselves above average, 68% of professors consider themselves in the top 25 percent for teaching ability, and 84% of Frenchmen believe they are above-average lovers.
overconfidence effect
93
over justification effect
he loss of motivation and interest as a result of receiving an excessive external reward (such as money and prizes).
When being rewarded for doing something actually diminishes intrinsic motivation to perform that action.
94
researchers gave children reward for doing activities they already enjoyed, like solving puzzles. Then, the children were given an opportunity to engage in these same activities on their own, when no rewards would be forthcoming. The results: children engaged in these activities less often than they did before.
over justification effect
95
pain of paying
Some purchases are more painful than others, and people try to avoid those types of purchases. Even if the actual cost is the same, there is a difference in the pain of paying depending of the mode of payment.
Purchases are not just affected by the price, utility and opportunity cost, but by the pain of paying attached to the transactions.
96
Studies show that people feel the pain of paying the most when they:
Paying in cash (as opposed to credit card).
Paying a separate fee/commission (as opposed to fee included in the total purchase price).
Paying as they consume (as opposed to one-time payment).
Paying frequently (as opposed to prepaid).
Paying on their own (as opposed to receiving a gift from their partners).
pain of paying
97
partitioning
When the rate of consumption decreased by physically partitioning resources into smaller units.
For example, cookies wrapped individually, a household budget divided into categories (e.g. rent, food, utilities, transportation etc.).
98
When a resource is divided into smaller units, consumers encounter additional decision points – a psychological hurdle encouraging them to stop and think.
partitioning
99
Peak end rule
People judge an experience largely based on how they felt at its peak (the most intense point) and its end, rather than on the total sum or average of every moment of the experience.
The effect occurs regardless of whether the experience is pleasant or unpleasant and how long the experience lasted.
100
study showed that in uncomfortable colonoscopy procedures, patients evaluated the discomfort of the experience based on the pain at the worst peak and the final ending moments. This occurred regardless of the procedure length or the pain intensity.
peak end rule
101
priming
When people are exposed to one stimulus, it affects how they respond to another stimulus.
Their unconscious brain is affected by stimulus like colors, words or smells, which created an emotion that will affect their next actions.
102
, one study revealed that when restaurants played French music, diners ordered more wine.
In a different study, when websites’ visitors were exposed to a green background with pennies on it, they looked at the price information longer than other visitors.
priming
103
procrastination
The avoidance of doing a task that needs to be accomplished.
It is the practice of doing more pleasurable things in place of less pleasurable ones or carrying out less urgent tasks instead of more urgent ones
104
projection bias
The tendency of people to overestimate the degree to which other people agree with them. People tend to assume that others think, feel, believe, and behave much like they do.
This bias also influences people’s assumptions of their future selves. They tend to believe that they will think, feel, and act the same in the future as they do now.
For this reason, we sometimes make decisions that satisfy current desires, instead of pursuing things that will serve our long-term goals
105
The tendency of people to overestimate the degree to which other people agree with them. People tend to assume that others think, feel, believe, and behave much like they do.
This bias also influences people’s assumptions of their future selves. They tend to believe that they will think, feel, and act the same in the future as they do now.
For this reason, we sometimes make decisions that satisfy current desires, instead of pursuing things that will serve our long-term goals
projection bias
106
f people go to the supermarket when they are hungry – they tend to buy things they don’t normally eat and spend more money as a result. This happens because at the time of shopping they unconsciously anticipate that their future hunger will be great as it is now.
projection bias
107
ratio bias
People’s difficulties in dealing with proportions or ratios as opposed to absolute numbers.
108
participants rated the statement “36,500 people die from cancer every year” as riskier than the statement “100 people die from cancer every day”.
ratio bias
109
People’s difficulties in dealing with proportions or ratios as opposed to absolute numbers.
ratio bias
110
11% of people were willing to donate an amount worth one day’s salary when they were given a small gift of candy while being asked for a donation, compared to 5% of those that were just asked for the donation.
reciprocity
111
regret aversion
People anticipate regret if they made a wrong choice, and take this anticipation into consideration when making new decisions. Fear of regret can play a large role in dissuading or motivating someone to do something.
112
People anticipate regret if they made a wrong choice, and take this anticipation into consideration when making new decisions. Fear of regret can play a large role in dissuading or motivating someone to do something.
regret aversion
113
an investor decides to buy a stock based on a friend’s recommendation. After a while, the stock falls by 50% and the investor sells the stock at lost.
To avoid this regret in the future, the investor will research any stocks that his friend recommends.
On the other hand, if the investor didn’t take his friend recommendation and the price increased by 50%, next time the investor would be less risk averse and would buy any stocks his friend recommends.
regret aversion
114
representativeness heuristic
People tend to judge the probability of an event by finding a ‘comparable known’ event and assuming that the probabilities will be similar.
When people rely on representativeness to make judgments, they are likely to judge wrongly because the fact that something is more representative does not actually make it more likely.
115
People tend to judge the probability of an event by finding a ‘comparable known’ event and assuming that the probabilities will be similar.
When people rely on ______ to make judgments, they are likely to judge wrongly because the fact that something is more representative does not actually make it more likely.
representativeness heuristic
116
if a customer meets a salesman from a certain company that is aggressive, the customer might assume that the company has an aggressive culture.
representativeness heuristic
117
scarcity
The more difficult it is to acquire an item the more value that item has.
When there is only a limited number of items available. The rarer the opportunity, the more valuable it is.
People assume that things that are difficult to obtain are usually better than those that are easily available. They link availability to quality.
118
On “Black Friday”, more than getting a bargain on a hot item, shoppers thrive on the competition itself, in obtaining the scarce product.
scarcity
119
social proof
A psychological phenomenon where people reference the behavior of others to guide their own behavior.
120
A psychological phenomenon where people reference the behavior of others to guide their own behavior
social proof
121
Studies show that over 70% of Americans say they look at product reviews before making a purchase and 83% of consumers say they trust recommendations over any other form of advertising.
social proof
122
wisdom of friends
an approval from friends and people you know.
| 92% of consumers trust recommendations from people they know and pay 2X more attention to recommendations from friends.
123
an approval from friends and people you know.
| 92% of consumers trust recommendations from people they know and pay 2X more attention to recommendations from friends.
wisdom of friends
124
sunk cost fallacy
The tendency of people to irrationally follow through on an activity that is not meeting their expectations because of the time and/or money they have already spent on it.
125
he tendency of people to irrationally follow through on an activity that is not meeting their expectations because of the time and/or money they have already spent on it.
sunk cost fallacy
126
explains why people finish movies they aren’t enjoying, finish meals in restaurants even though they are full, hold on to investments that are underperforming and keep clothes in their closet that they’ve never worn.
sunk cost fallacy
127
zero price effect
When any item priced at exactly zero will not only be perceived to have a lower cost but will also be attributed greater perceived value.
When people are offered something for free, they have an extremely positive reaction that clouds their judgment.
128
When any item priced at exactly zero will not only be perceived to have a lower cost but will also be attributed greater perceived value.
When people are offered something for free, they have an extremely positive reaction that clouds their judgment.
zero price effect
129
ambiguity effect
the tendency to avoid options for which missing information makes the probability seem "unknown"
130
the tendency to avoid options for which missing information makes the probability seem "unknown"
ambiguity effect
131
the tendency to use human analogies as a basis for reasoning about other, less familiar, biological phenomena
anthropocentric thinking
132
anthropocentric thinking
the tendency to use human analogies as a basis for reasoning about other, less familiar, biological phenomena
133
attentional bias
the tendency of perception to be affected by recurring thoughts
134
the tendency of perception to be affected by recurring thoughts
attentional bias
135
The tendency to depend excessively on automated systems which can lead to erroneous automated information overriding correct decisions
automation bias
136
automation bias
The tendency to depend excessively on automated systems which can lead to erroneous automated information overriding correct decisions
137
self-reinforcing process in which a collective belief gains more and more plausibility through its increasing repetition in public discourse (or "repeat something long enough and it will become true").[
availability cascade
138
availability cascade
self-reinforcing process in which a collective belief gains more and more plausibility through its increasing repetition in public discourse (or "repeat something long enough and it will become true").
139
The reaction to disconfirming evidence by strengthening one's previous beliefs
back fire effect
140
back fire effect
The reaction to disconfirming evidence by strengthening one's previous beliefs
141
base rate fallacy
The tendency to ignore base rate information (generic, general information) and focus on specific information (information only pertaining to a certain case
142
The tendency to ignore base rate information (generic, general information) and focus on specific information (information only pertaining to a certain case
base rate fallacy
143
belief bias
An effect where someone's evaluation of the logical strength of an argument is biased by the believability of the conclusion.
144
An effect where someone's evaluation of the logical strength of an argument is biased by the believability of the conclusion.
belief bias
145
ben franklin effect
A person who has performed a favor for someone is more likely to do another favor for that person than they would be if they had received a favor from that person.
146
A person who has performed a favor for someone is more likely to do another favor for that person than they would be if they had received a favor from that person.
ben franklin effect
147
bias blind spot
The tendency to see oneself as less biased than other people, or to be able to identify more cognitive biases in others than in oneself.
148
The tendency to see oneself as less biased than other people, or to be able to identify more cognitive biases in others than in oneself.
bias blind spot
149
choice-supportive bias
The tendency to remember one's choices as better than they actually were
150
The tendency to remember one's choices as better than they actually were
choice-supportive bias
151
What are the components of effective praise?
1) State what you saw
2) State that you appreciate it
3) State why its important
4) It makes me feel this way
152
What is the most effective form of recognition
personal
153
What is the #1 reason why people leave their jobs?
lack of praise and recognition
154
Employees who receive recognition at work are ____ times more committed and give ___% more effort
11x
| 60%
155
clustering illusion
The tendency to overestimate the importance of small runs, streaks, or clusters in large samples of random data (that is, seeing phantom patterns)
156
The tendency to overestimate the importance of small runs, streaks, or clusters in large samples of random data (that is, seeing phantom patterns)
clustering illusion
157
conjunction fallacy
he tendency to assume that specific conditions are more probable than general ones
158
he tendency to assume that specific conditions are more probable than general ones
conjunction fallacy
159
conservatism
The tendency to revise one's belief insufficiently when presented with new evidence.
160
Continued influence effect
The tendency to believe previously learned misinformation even after it has been corrected. Misinformation can still influence inferences one generates after a correction has occurred
161
The tendency to believe previously learned misinformation even after it has been corrected. Misinformation can still influence inferences one generates after a correction has occurred
Continued influence effect
162
courtesy bias
he tendency to give an opinion that is more socially correct than one's true opinion, so as to avoid offending anyone
163
he tendency to give an opinion that is more socially correct than one's true opinion, so as to avoid offending anyone
courtesy bias
164
Curse of knowledge
When better-informed people find it extremely difficult to think about problems from the perspective of lesser-informed people
165
declinism
The predisposition to view the past favourably (rosy retrospection) and future negatively
166
Decoy effect
Preferences for either option A or B change in favor of option B when option C is presented, which is completely dominated by option B (inferior in all respects) and partially dominated by option A.
167
Default effect
When given a choice between several options, the tendency to favor the default one.
168
Denomination effect
The tendency to spend more money when it is denominated in small amounts (e.g., coins) rather than large amounts (e.g., bills)
169
Duration neglect
he neglect of the duration of an episode in determining its value
170
he neglect of the duration of an episode in determining its value
Duration neglect
171
Barnum effect
The observation that individuals will give high accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality that supposedly are tailored specifically for them, but are in fact vague and general enough to apply to a wide range of people. This effect can provide a partial explanation for the widespread acceptance of some beliefs and practices, such as astrology, fortune telling, graphology, and some types of personality tests.
172
The observation that individuals will give high accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality that supposedly are tailored specifically for them, but are in fact vague and general enough to apply to a wide range of people. This effect can provide a partial explanation for the widespread acceptance of some beliefs and practices, such as astrology, fortune telling, graphology, and some types of personality tests.
Barnum effect
173
Frequency illusion
The illusion in which a word, a name, or other thing that has recently come to one's attention suddenly seems to appear with improbable frequency shortly afterwards (not to be confused with the recency illusion or selection bias).[41] This illusion is sometimes referred to as the Baader-Meinhof phenomenon
174
The illusion in which a word, a name, or other thing that has recently come to one's attention suddenly seems to appear with improbable frequency shortly afterwards (not to be confused with the recency illusion or selection bias).[41] This illusion is sometimes referred to as the Baader-Meinhof phenomenon
Frequency illusion
175
Limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used.
Functional fixedness
176
The "hostile attribution bias" is the tendency to interpret others' behaviors as having hostile intent, even when the behavior is ambiguous or benign.
Hostile attribution bias
177
Hostile attribution bias
The "hostile attribution bias" is the tendency to interpret others' behaviors as having hostile intent, even when the behavior is ambiguous or benign.
178
Hot-hand fallacy
The "hot-hand fallacy" (also known as the "hot hand phenomenon" or "hot hand") is the fallacious belief that a person who has experienced success with a random event has a greater chance of further success in additional attempts.
179
The "hot-hand fallacy" (also known as the "hot hand phenomenon" or "hot hand") is the fallacious belief that a person who has experienced success with a random event has a greater chance of further success in additional attempts.
Hot-hand fallacy
180
Identifiable victim effect
he tendency to respond more strongly to a single identified person at risk than to a large group of people at risk
181
Illusion of control
The tendency to overestimate one's degree of influence over other external events
182
ilusion of validity
Belief that our judgments are accurate, especially when available information is consistent or inter-correlated.
183
Belief that our judgments are accurate, especially when available information is consistent or inter-correlated.
llusion of validity
184
inaccurately perceiving a relationship between two unrelated events
Illusory correlation
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Illusory correlation
inaccurately perceiving a relationship between two unrelated events
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Illusory truth effect
A tendency to believe that a statement is true if it is easier to process, or if it has been stated multiple times, regardless of its actual veracity. These are specific cases of truthiness.
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A tendency to believe that a statement is true if it is easier to process, or if it has been stated multiple times, regardless of its actual veracity. These are specific cases of truthiness.
Illusory truth effect
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Impact bias
he tendency to overestimate the length or the intensity of the impact of future feeling states.
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he tendency to overestimate the length or the intensity of the impact of future feeling states.[
Impact bias
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Information bias
The tendency to seek information even when it cannot affect action
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The tendency to seek information even when it cannot affect action
Information bias
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The tendency to under-expect variation in small samples.
Insensitivity to sample size
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Law of the instrument
An over-reliance on a familiar tool or methods, ignoring or under-valuing alternative approaches. "If all you have is a hammer, everything looks like a nail."
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Mere exposure effect
The tendency to express undue liking for things merely because of familiarity with them
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The tendency to express undue liking for things merely because of familiarity with them
Mere exposure effect
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The tendency of a track record of non-prejudice to increase subsequent prejudice.
Moral credential effect
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Moral credential effect
The tendency of a track record of non-prejudice to increase subsequent prejudice.
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Psychological phenomenon by which humans have a greater recall of unpleasant memories compared with positive memories
Negativity bias or Negativity effect
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Negativity bias or Negativity effect
Psychological phenomenon by which humans have a greater recall of unpleasant memories compared with positive memories
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Psychological phenomenon by which humans have a greater recall of unpleasant memories compared with positive memories
Negativity bias or Negativity effect
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The tendency to completely disregard probability when making a decision under uncertainty.
Neglect of probability
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Neglect of probability
The tendency to completely disregard probability when making a decision under uncertainty.
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The refusal to plan for, or react to, a disaster which has never happened before.
Normalcy bias
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Normalcy bias
The refusal to plan for, or react to, a disaster which has never happened before.
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Aversion to contact with or use of products, research, standards, or knowledge developed outside a group. Related to IKEA effect.
Not invented here
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Not invented here
Aversion to contact with or use of products, research, standards, or knowledge developed outside a group. Related to IKEA effect.
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The tendency to judge harmful actions as worse, or less moral, than equally harmful omissions
Omission bias
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Omission bias
The tendency to judge harmful actions as worse, or less moral, than equally harmful omissions
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Ignoring an obvious (negative) situation.
Ostrich effect
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Ostrich effect
Ignoring an obvious (negative) situation.
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The tendency to judge a decision by its eventual outcome instead of based on the quality of the decision at the time it was made.
Outcome bias
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Outcome bias
The tendency to judge a decision by its eventual outcome instead of based on the quality of the decision at the time it was made.
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Excessive confidence in one's own answers to questions. For example, for certain types of questions, answers that people rate as "99% certain" turn out to be wrong 40% of the time
Overconfidence effect
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Overconfidence effect
Excessive confidence in one's own answers to questions. For example, for certain types of questions, answers that people rate as "99% certain" turn out to be wrong 40% of the time
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A vague and random stimulus (often an image or sound) is perceived as significant, e.g., seeing images of animals or faces in clouds, the man in the moon, and hearing non-existent hidden messages on records played in reverse.
Pareidolia
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Pareidolia
A vague and random stimulus (often an image or sound) is perceived as significant, e.g., seeing images of animals or faces in clouds, the man in the moon, and hearing non-existent hidden messages on records played in reverse.
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The tendency for some people, especially those suffering from depression, to overestimate the likelihood of negative things happening to them.
Pessimism bias
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Pessimism bias
The tendency for some people, especially those suffering from depression, to overestimate the likelihood of negative things happening to them.
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The belief that a medication works—even if it is fake
Placebo effect
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Placebo effect
The belief that a medication works—even if it is fake
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The tendency to underestimate task-completion times.
Planning fallacy
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Planning fallacy
The tendency to underestimate task-completion times.
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The tendency to persuade oneself through rational argument that a purchase was good value.
Post-purchase rationalization
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The tendency to have an excessive optimism towards an invention or innovation's usefulness throughout society, while often failing to identify its limitations and weaknesses.
Pro-innovation bias
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Pro-innovation bias
The tendency to have an excessive optimism towards an invention or innovation's usefulness throughout society, while often failing to identify its limitations and weaknesses.
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The tendency to have an excessive optimism towards an invention or innovation's usefulness throughout society, while often failing to identify its limitations and weaknesses.
Pro-innovation bias
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The tendency to overestimate how much our future selves share one's current preferences, thoughts and values, thus leading to sub-optimal choices
Projection bias
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Projection bias
The tendency to overestimate how much our future selves share one's current preferences, thoughts and values, thus leading to sub-optimal choices
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The tendency to make risk-averse choices if the expected outcome is positive, but make risk-seeking choices to avoid negative outcomes.
Pseudocertainty effect
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Pseudocertainty effect
The tendency to make risk-averse choices if the expected outcome is positive, but make risk-seeking choices to avoid negative outcomes.
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The urge to do the opposite of what someone wants you to do out of a need to resist a perceived attempt to constrain your freedom of choice
Reactance
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Reactance
The urge to do the opposite of what someone wants you to do out of a need to resist a perceived attempt to constrain your freedom of choice
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Devaluing proposals only because they purportedly originated with an adversary.
Reactive devaluation
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Reactive devaluation
Devaluing proposals only because they purportedly originated with an adversary.
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A certain state of mind wherein high values and high likelihoods are overestimated while low values and low likelihoods are underestimated.
regressive bias
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regressive bias
A certain state of mind wherein high values and high likelihoods are overestimated while low values and low likelihoods are underestimated.
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The tendency to overestimate one's ability to show restraint in the face of temptation.
restraint bias
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restraint bias
The tendency to overestimate one's ability to show restraint in the face of temptation.
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Rhyming statements are perceived as more truthful. A famous example being used in the O.J Simpson trial with the defense's use of the phrase "If the gloves don't fit, then you must acquit."
Rhyme as reason effect
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Rhyme as reason effect
Rhyming statements are perceived as more truthful. A famous example being used in the O.J Simpson trial with the defense's use of the phrase "If the gloves don't fit, then you must acquit."
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The tendency to take greater risks when perceived safety increases.
Risk compensation / Peltzman effect
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Risk compensation / Peltzman effect
The tendency to take greater risks when perceived safety increases.
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The tendency to notice something more when something causes us to be more aware of it, such as when we buy a car, we tend to notice similar cars more often than we did before. They are not suddenly more common - we just are noticing them more. Also called the Observational Selection Bias.
Selection bias
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Selection bias
The tendency to notice something more when something causes us to be more aware of it, such as when we buy a car, we tend to notice similar cars more often than we did before. They are not suddenly more common - we just are noticing them more. Also called the Observational Selection Bias.
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The tendency for expectations to affect perception.
Selective perception
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Selective perception
The tendency for expectations to affect perception.
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The tendency to reject new evidence that contradicts a paradigm.
Sexual overperception bias / sexual underperception bias
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Sexual overperception bias / sexual underperception bias
The tendency to reject new evidence that contradicts a paradigm.
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Social comparison bias
The tendency, when making decisions, to favour potential candidates who don't compete with one's own particular strengths.
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The tendency, when making decisions, to favour potential candidates who don't compete with one's own particular strengths.
Social comparison bias
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The tendency to over-report socially desirable characteristics or behaviours in oneself and under-report socially undesirable characteristics or behaviours
Social desirability bias
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Social desirability bias
The tendency to over-report socially desirable characteristics or behaviours in oneself and under-report socially undesirable characteristics or behaviours
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status quo
The tendency to like things to stay relatively the same
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The tendency to like things to stay relatively the same
status quo
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The tendency to judge probability of the whole to be less than the probabilities of the parts
Subadditivity effect
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Subadditivity effect
The tendency to judge probability of the whole to be less than the probabilities of the parts
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Subjective validation
Perception that something is true if a subject's belief demands it to be true. Also assigns perceived connections between coincidences.
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Perception that something is true if a subject's belief demands it to be true. Also assigns perceived connections between coincidences.
Subjective validation
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Concentrating on the people or things that "survived" some process and inadvertently overlooking those that didn't because of their lack of visibility.
Survivorship bias
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Survivorship bias
Concentrating on the people or things that "survived" some process and inadvertently overlooking those that didn't because of their lack of visibility.
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Belief that mass communicated media messages have a greater effect on others than on themselves.
Third-person effect
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Third-person effect
Belief that mass communicated media messages have a greater effect on others than on themselves.
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The tendency to give disproportionate weight to trivial issues. Also known as bikeshedding, this bias explains why an organization may avoid specialized or complex subjects, such as the design of a nuclear reactor, and instead focus on something easy to grasp or rewarding to the average participant, such as the design of an adjacent bike shed
Parkinson's law of triviality
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Parkinson's law of triviality
The tendency to give disproportionate weight to trivial issues. Also known as bikeshedding, this bias explains why an organization may avoid specialized or complex subjects, such as the design of a nuclear reactor, and instead focus on something easy to grasp or rewarding to the average participant, such as the design of an adjacent bike shed
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Unit bias
The tendency to want to finish a given unit of a task or an item. Strong effects on the consumption of food in particular
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The tendency to want to finish a given unit of a task or an item. Strong effects on the consumption of food in particular
Unit bias
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Weber–Fechner law
Difficulty in comparing small differences in large quantities.
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Difficulty in comparing small differences in large quantities.
Weber–Fechner law
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Well travelled road effect
Underestimation of the duration taken to traverse oft-traveled routes and overestimation of the duration taken to traverse less familiar routes.
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Underestimation of the duration taken to traverse oft-traveled routes and overestimation of the duration taken to traverse less familiar routes.
Well travelled road effect
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A tendency to associate more positive attributes with women than with men.
"Women are wonderful" effect
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"Women are wonderful" effect
A tendency to associate more positive attributes with women than with men.
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Preference for reducing a small risk to zero over a greater reduction in a larger risk.
Zero-risk bias
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Zero-risk bias
Preference for reducing a small risk to zero over a greater reduction in a larger risk.
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A bias whereby a situation is incorrectly perceived to be like a zero-sum game (i.e., one person gains at the expense of another).
Zero-sum bias
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Zero-sum bias
A bias whereby a situation is incorrectly perceived to be like a zero-sum game (i.e., one person gains at the expense of another).
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The tendency to attribute greater accuracy to the opinion of an authority figure (unrelated to its content) and be more influenced by that opinion.
Authority bias
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Authority bias
The tendency to attribute greater accuracy to the opinion of an authority figure (unrelated to its content) and be more influenced by that opinion.
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Cheerleader effect
he tendency for people to appear more attractive in a group than in isolation
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he tendency for people to appear more attractive in a group than in isolation
Cheerleader effect
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Attributing more blame to a harm-doer as the outcome becomes more severe or as personal or situational similarity to the victim increases.
Defensive attribution hypothesis
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Defensive attribution hypothesis
Attributing more blame to a harm-doer as the outcome becomes more severe or as personal or situational similarity to the victim increases.
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Occurs when people claim more responsibility for themselves for the results of a joint action than an outside observer would credit them with.
Egocentric bias
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Egocentric bias
Occurs when people claim more responsibility for themselves for the results of a joint action than an outside observer would credit them with.
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when people view others as having (situational) extrinsic motivations and (dispositional) intrinsic motivations for oneself
Extrinsic incentives bias
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Extrinsic incentives bias
when people view others as having (situational) extrinsic motivations and (dispositional) intrinsic motivations for oneself
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The tendency for people to overestimate the degree to which others agree with them.
False consensus effect
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False consensus effect
The tendency for people to overestimate the degree to which others agree with them.
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The tendency to give high accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality that supposedly are tailored specifically for them, but are in fact vague and general enough to apply to a wide range of people. For example, horoscopes.
Forer effect (aka Barnum effect)
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Forer effect (aka Barnum effect)
The tendency to give high accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality that supposedly are tailored specifically for them, but are in fact vague and general enough to apply to a wide range of people. For example, horoscopes.
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The tendency for people to over-emphasize personality-based explanations for behaviors observed in others while under-emphasizing the role and power of situational influences on the same behavior
Fundamental attribution error
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Fundamental attribution error
The tendency for people to over-emphasize personality-based explanations for behaviors observed in others while under-emphasizing the role and power of situational influences on the same behavior
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Group attribution error
The biased belief that the characteristics of an individual group member are reflective of the group as a whole or the tendency to assume that group decision outcomes reflect the preferences of group members, even when information is available that clearly suggests otherwise.
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The biased belief that the characteristics of an individual group member are reflective of the group as a whole or the tendency to assume that group decision outcomes reflect the preferences of group members, even when information is available that clearly suggests otherwise.
Group attribution error
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People perceive their knowledge of their peers to surpass their peers' knowledge of them.
Illusion of asymmetric insight
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Illusion of asymmetric insight
People perceive their knowledge of their peers to surpass their peers' knowledge of them.
297
When people view self-generated preferences as instead being caused by insightful, effective and benevolent agents
Illusion of external agency
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Illusion of external agency
When people view self-generated preferences as instead being caused by insightful, effective and benevolent agents
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People overestimate others' ability to know them, and they also overestimate their ability to know others.
Illusion of transparency
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Illusion of transparency
People overestimate others' ability to know them, and they also overestimate their ability to know others.
301
Overestimating one's desirable qualities, and underestimating undesirable qualities, relative to other people.
Illusory superiority
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Illusory superiority
Overestimating one's desirable qualities, and underestimating undesirable qualities, relative to other people.
303
The tendency for people to give preferential treatment to others they perceive to be members of their own groups.
Ingroup bias
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Ingroup bias
The tendency for people to give preferential treatment to others they perceive to be members of their own groups.
305
Just-world hypothesis
The tendency for people to want to believe that the world is fundamentally just, causing them to rationalize an otherwise inexplicable injustice as deserved by the victim(s).
306
The tendency for people to want to believe that the world is fundamentally just, causing them to rationalize an otherwise inexplicable injustice as deserved by the victim(s).
Just-world hypothesis
307
The tendency for people to ascribe greater or lesser moral standing based on the outcome of an event.
Moral luck
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Moral luck
The tendency for people to ascribe greater or lesser moral standing based on the outcome of an event.
309
a 1996 study by Kahneman and Redelmeier assessed patients' appraisals of uncomfortable colonoscopy or lithotripsy procedures and correlated the remembered experience with real-time findings. They found that patients consistently evaluated the discomfort of the experience based on the intensity of pain at the worst (peak) and final (end) moments. This occurred regardless of length or variation in intensity of pain within the procedure. This is an example of
peak end rule
310
Premature rejection of ambiguous options simply for lack of data even though these options could potentially be significantly better than the ones for which we have more data
Ambiguity effect
311
Tip of the Tongue Bias
In trying to remember specific details about something, you believe that it is the next thing on the tip of your tongue
312
In trying to remember specific details about something, you believe that it is the next thing on the tip of your tongue
Tip of the Tongue Bias
313
you witness a crime, and are later pressed to remember everything that you can about the event. You remember that the vehicle involved was a blue truck and that it had something written on the side. You cannot remember what was written on the side, and although the word eludes you, you feel as if the word is right there on the verge of access and it might come to you at any moment
Tip of the Tongue Bias
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Google effect
the tendency to forget information that can be found readily online by using Internet search engines such as Google. According to the first study about the Google effect people are less likely to remember certain details they believe will be accessible online.
315
the tendency to forget information that can be found readily online by using Internet search engines such as Google. According to the first study about the Google effect people are less likely to remember certain details they believe will be accessible online.
Google effect
316
Next in Line Effect
phenomena of people being unable to recall information concerning events immediately preceding their turn to perform.
317
phenomena of people being unable to recall information concerning events immediately preceding their turn to perform.
Next in Line Effect
318
Testing Effect
finding that long-term memory is often increased when some of the learning period is devoted to retrieving the to-be-remembered information
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finding that long-term memory is often increased when some of the learning period is devoted to retrieving the to-be-remembered information
Testing Effect
