Cognitive Approach Studies Flashcards
Describe Conrad’s Study
A: Investigate nature of coding in STM
M:
Ppts presented visually with 6 letters 1 letter at a time, either acoustically similar e.g. BDG or acoustically dissimilar e.g. WLFMZ
They had to write down each list in order letters appeared immediately after presentation
R: Letter which are acoustically similar are harder to recall than letters acoustically dissimilar
C: Suggests STM mainly encodes things acoustically even though presented visually
E:
Lacks mundane realism, use of single letters doesn’t reflect memory in everyday life
Describe Glanzer & Cunitz’s Study
A: Investigate role of rehearsal in memory formation
M:
PPTS: 240 army enlisted men
Played recordings of 20 one syllable word lists followed by free recall for 2 mins
Second condition: began same yet after recordings filler task was implemented, ppts counted back from a given no in 3s for 30s
R: Presence of primacy & recency effects within first condition so most words recalled at very start or end and not many in middle (serial position effect), primacy due to rehearsal of earlier words transferring them into LTM, recency due to final words still being in STM so no need for rehearsal. However, in second condition, primacy still present, recency disappears as filler task lasts same amount of time as STM is capable of holding info and filler prevents rehearsal
C: Evidence to support 2 separate stores which have different memory mechanisms behind them as only one effect disappears, when people hear words with intention to memorise repeat words to self, first are rehearsed more often, more likely to enter LTM , last not rehearsed enough
E:
Highly controlled
All male participants, gender bias
Lacks ecological validity, this memorisation doesn’t mirror everyday ways of utilising memory
Describe Baddeley & Hitch’s Study
A: Investigate if ppts can use different parts of working memory at same time
M:
Ppts performed dual processing task where 2 tasks performed simultaneously
R: When 2 listening/2 visual tasks performed together, much less successful than doing 1 visual and 1 listening because when tasks both visual both needed to be processed in same store, yet when different e.g. 1 visual, 1 listening, processed in different stores (visuospatial sketchpad & phonological loop) much more successful
C: Provides support for idea of 2 separate stores for STM illustrated by WMM
E:
Highly controlled
Lacks ecological validity, this memorisation doesn’t mirror everyday ways of utilising memory
Describe Warrington & Shallice’s Case Study
KF = Man who suffered from brain damage after motorbike accident
Digit span test carried out on KF by Warrington and Shallice
Numbers were presented to KF orally & visually
Quickly forgot those presented orally yet remembered those shown visually
Evidence for presence of 2 different stores for STM in WMM as oral STM was not normal yet his visual STM was perfectly normal
STM more complex than suggested by MSM which would have just concluded STM overall is flawed
Describe Bransford & Johnson’s Study
A: Investigate effect of context on comprehension and memory of text passages
M:
Ppts divided into 5 groups
No context (1) played once
No context (2) played twice
Context before: provided with context picture for 30s
Context after: same picture shown after
Partial context: context picture provided before with all objects but rearranged
All heard same tape-recorded passage
Ppts instructed to recall it as accurately as pos in 7 mins
R: Out of 14 idea units, average recall by ppts…
No context (1): 3.6
No context (2): 3.8
Context before: 8.0
Context after: 3.8
Partial context: 4.0
C: Context before = best, others same or marginally better, using schema theory finding can be interpreted by referring to a mental representation created by full context picture prior to hearing passage, after schema is created it influences organisation of our knowledge, idea units are more effectively encoded as in process of encoding they are linked with schema
E:
Lab - easily replicated, artificial (low ecological validity), task highly controlled (high internal validity) allows for cause-effect relationship
Not possible to know schema activated, instead may be other reasons for recall e.g. good memory skills
Findings applicable to education
Describe Darley & Gross’ Study
A: Investigate whether a schema will make people form stereotypes for a particular person
M:
2 groups: ppts told a girl came from a high or low socioeconomic status background
Both groups watched video of girl taking academic test
Required to judge academic performance of girl
R: Ppts who though girl came from high SES environment gave considerably higher ratings for academic performance
C: Pre-stored schemas about what it means to be rich/poor used as lens through which ambiguous info perceived and ppt interpretations were changed accordingly, people filled in the blanks using their schemas, focusing on info in their pre-build idea
E:
Useful for explaining & predicting behaviour, can be used to support schema theory in relation to social schemas (subconscious assumptions)
Highly controlled, same girl, easy to replicate
Lab - lacks ecological validity
Suggests schemas involved in stereotype formation
Describe Alter et al’s Study
A: Investigate effect of cognitive disfluency on use of rational thinking over intuitive thinking
M:
PPTS: 40 undergraduate volunteers from Princeton assigned to ½ conditions
Completed CRT questionnaire
Condition 1: Fluent, CRT printed in easy to read font
Condition 2: Disfluent, hard-to-read font
R: Ppts answered more questions correctly when font hard to read
C: Hard to read font caused ppts to use rational thinking in solving problem as they had to slow down and engage in more deliberate, effortful system 2 thinking thus answered correctly yet when question written in easy to read font ppts use quick, automatic system 1 thinking to come up with obvious yet incorrect answer
E:
Evidence that disfluency initiates systematic processing and evidence for dual processing theory
Alternate interpretation: disfluency only slowed ppts down so possible that rational thinking triggered by slower pace not disfluency
Only involved students at high achieving school, not rep of gen pop may not be generalisable others may have lower intelligence rates
CRT has trick questions, thus ecological validity is low, real world significance unclear
Controlled extraneous variables in lab e.g. distraction, influence - cause-effect possible, low ecological validity, can’t say would be same in real life
Describe Tversky & Kahneman’s Study
A: Test whether people mistake representativeness for similarity
M:
88 US statistically naive (undergrad), informed (grads) and sophisticated (PhD candidates) ppts completed questionnaire where asked: ‘Linda is 31 years old, single, outspoken and very bright. She majored in philosophy. As a student, she was deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice, and also participated in anti-nuclear demonstrations’
Ppts asked which is more probable
Linda is a bank teller
Linda is a bank teller and is active in the feminist movement
R: Almost 90% answered incorrectly with option 2
C: Naive, informed & sophisticated users of statistics were inclined to make incorrect decisions (S1 thinking override S2), quick, intuitive thinking made ppts answer option 2. This is ex of conjunction fallacy: that specific conditions have higher probability than one single general condition
E:
Not representative sample of gen pop
Only in US: if done in cultures where stats more prominent in curriculum results may be different
Replicated many times with similar results
Describe Loftus & Palmer’s Study
A: See role of leading questions in influencing memories of eyewitnesses
M1:
PPTS: 45 students divided into 5 groups
Shown recording of traffic accident
Given questionnaires with one critical question with word with different emotional intensity: about how fast were the cars going when they … into each other (smashed/hit/collided/contacted/bumped)
R1: Mean speed estimates: smashed = 40.5mph, hit = 34.0mph
C1: Misleading post-event info influences eyewitness accounts yet 2 pos explanations
Genuine memory change
Response bias (memory doesn’t change but higher emotional intensity causes higher estimates when unsure)
M2:
PPTS: 150 students, 3 groups
Shown recording of traffic accident
Questionnaire with 1 critical question, as before
1 week later, returned for 2nd questionnaire with 1 critical question: did you see any broken glass?
R2: Reality = none, 32% of those who saw smashed said yes compared with 14% of those who saw hit
C2: Genuine memory change, verbs of higher emotional intensity caused ppts to recall events that never occurred
E:
Lab - low ecological validity as shown films and didn’t experience crash themselves, pot not same emotion, real life behaviour may not be reflected
Cause-effect established (intensity of critical word & estimate) as confounding variables controlled
Students not representative of gen pop, young & inexperienced drivers may not be as good at estimation as a more mature driver
Describe Yuille & Cutshall’s Study
A: Impact of post-event info on memory in a natural setting
M:
PPTS: 13/21 witnesses of real life gun store robbery
All interviewed by police straight after
4 months later - psych interviews with leading vs non-leading questions
Accuracy determine by comparing memories to police records
R: Misleading questions had little effect on memory, mostly recalled accurately
C: Maybe flashbulb memory? Reconstructive memory just phenomenon in lab?
E:
Real world: good generalisability
Biological theory backed up by modern day research (Sharot)
Couldn’t be done ethically in lab
Low controls, lots of overt/covert rehearsal may have occurred
Accuracy can be tested
Ones who signed up may have read/thought about it more
Describe Snyder & Swann’s Study
A: Investigate role of confirmation bias when selecting questions to determine personality type
M:
Told 58 female ppts from Uni of Minnesota they were going to meet a person who was an introvert or an extrovert
Ppts provided with list of 26 topic areas often covered by interviewers and asked to choose 12 questions to ask person that they estimated would provide them with info to best test hypothesis about target (introvert/extrovert)
Questions on topic sheet came from 3 categories: extroverted e.g. ‘what would you do to liven things up at a party?’, introverted e.g. ‘what things do you dislike about loud parties?’ and neutral e.g. ‘what are your career goals?’ questions
R: Evidence that individuals will systematically formulate confirmatory strategies for testing hypotheses about others, e.g. for those testing extroverts they asked questions one typically asks of people already known to be extroverted or visa versa
C: Evidence for existence of confirmation bias in decision making behaviour
E:
Gender and sample bias: only female ppts, so may not be generalisable to males
Only all-American college students used, so may not be representative of gen pop for example, British ppts may have difference perception
Opportunity sample - quick yet potential bias in who selected with favourable characteristics and seems approachable
Deception used but ppts debriefed (didn’t actually have to meet person)
Independent measures design - no order effects, only select questions once yet individuals in one group may have difference perceptions of extro/introverts
Describe Zebrowitz & Mcdonald’s Study
A: Investigate effect of plaintiffs’ & defendants’ facial appearances on decisions made in small claims court
M:
25 decisions relating to 506 cases observed in Massachusetts small claims court
21% presided over by 3 judges, rest by 22
2 observers rated plaintiffs’ & defendants’ appearance independently
72% plaintiffs & 78% defendants = male
96% = white
81% = 21-50
Results of cases obtained from court records & appearance ratings compared with outcomes
R: Greater plaintiff’s physical attractiveness = more likely defendants lost case
More baby faced a defendant was = more likely to win case involving intentional behaviour & more likely to lose cases involving negligence
As rating of defendant’s facial maturity increased = greater the monetary awards were to baby faced plaintiffs
C: Case outcome is correlated with plaintiff & defendant’s facial attractiveness & halo effect is evident. Study also measured for nine more variables e.g. height, weight with no correlation found
E:
Robust conclusion
No info about judges e.g. gender, age, experience included, judges themselves are ppts as relationship between plaintiffs & defendants’ appearance & judges decisions investigated so omission of their characteristics is a serious limitation Limited to Massachusetts & subjected were fairly homogeneous group - predominately white, male & middle aged so cannot be widely generalised
No cause-effect, just a correlation
Describe Brown & Kulik’s Study
A: Investigate if surprising and personally significant events can cause flashbulb memories
M:
PPTS: 40 black, 40 white
All filled in questionnaires about deaths of public figures (incl Martin Luther King Jr & John F Kennedy) as well as of someone who knew personally
Questions incl where/what/who/with when heard about event
R: 90% of ppts recalled significant amount of detail about day when occurred and most had detailed memories about a loved one. Difference in memories of assasination of public figures based on personal relevance e.g. 75% of black ppts had flashbulb memories of MLK compared to 33% of white ppts
C: People form flashbulb memories of events that have emotional significance to them
E:
Ethnocentrism, gender & cultural bias as only American males, other cultures may form more/less FBM for example, women may additionally form FBM more/less than males
Can’t test accuracy of ppt accounts and emotion/surprise at time of event cannot be measured/verified, these two factors are difference to put into words are ppts had to do so can’t be accurately perceived
Social desirability bias?
Describe Sharot et al’s Study
A: Determine potential role of biological factors on FBM
M:
PPTS: 24 people who were in NYC on day of 9/11 terrorist attacks, recruited through advertisements, gave informed consent
Conducted 3 years post-attacks
Put in fMRI where their brain activity observed as presented with word cues with word ‘summer’ or ‘september’ presented alongside so ppt linked word to summer or 9/11
Personal summer memories = baseline of brain activity for evaluating nature of 9/11 memories
After brain scanning, ppts asked to rate memories for vividness, detail & confidence in accuracy & arousal, and write description of personal memories
R: Only ½ ppts reported having FBMs, those who did = closer to World Trade Centre on day, these people also included more specific details in written memories. Also found amygdala activation higher for ppts who were downtown when recalled memories of attack than of summer, however ppts further away had equal levels of amygdala response recalling attack & summer. Strength of amygdala activation at retrieval shown to correlate with FBM.
C: Shows close personal experience may be critical in engaging neural mechanisms that produce vivid memories characteristic of FBM
E:
Correlational, doesn’t establish C & E
Environment of fMRI = highly artificial & low in ecological validity however due to nature of task, demand characteristics not possible
Explains role of amygdala as a result of proximity, doesn’t explain why some have vivid memories after seeing events on TV or internet
Small, culturally biassed sample, research indicates individualistic cultures more lively to have FBM than collectivistic culture thus hard to generalise findings
