Cognitive Approach

Question 1

Assumption One-
Human mind works like a computer:
Explain analogy with example
Multi store model of memory

Answer 1

Cognitive psychologists have tried to understand behaviour by comparing the human mind to a computer, known as the computer analogy.

Computer Analogy explained:
1. Info is taken in (input)
2. Info is stored (process)- cognitive processes take place
3. Respond to the info or can be called when needed. (output)
Information flows from the senses to a storage system called sensory memory. Some of the info is passed onto a storage system known as short term memory. If info in ST memory is rehearsed it will find its way into long term memory, where it will be permanently stored.

Question 2

Assumption Two-
Behaviour is influenced by Internal Mental Processes:
PALM
Example of palm
Gambling research (Rational thoughts)

Answer 2

Behaviour can be explained in terms of our IMP’s.

The four main mental processes include:
Perception- How we see and understand things.
Attention- Whether you’re paying attention to something.
Language- Using out knowledge of language to communicate.
Memory- Accessing our memory for certain events.
Example: Listening/learning a song
P- How the song makes you feel
A- Paying attention to the lyrics
L- Using knowledge of languages to help learn the lyrics.
M- Memorising the lyrics

Gambling Research:
Cognitive psychologists use info- where they infer what is happening in the mind.
Used to investigate the thoughts of those who gamble compared to those who don’t.
Gamblers more likely to have irrational thoughts (such as I lost because I wasn’t concentrating). Verbal comments were used to make assumptions about their thinking processes.

Question 3

Assumption Three-
Behaviour is influenced by schemas:
What affects the development of a schema
Different kinds of schemas
How it affects behaviour.

Answer 3

A schema is a mental structure used to organise knowledge and experience of the world which is then accessed to make sense of objects, situations and people. Eg- Dog schema, 4 legs, furry, bark. When seeing something that looks like a dog, you access your schema and compare to past experiences.

Development of schemas:
Schemas can contribute to stereotypes and make it difficult to retain new info that does not conform to our established ideas about the world.

Scripts- Event schemas that tell us what to expect from an event. Eg. Going to a restaurant
Role schema- Tells us about different roles (incl responsibilities). Eg. Nurse or Teacher.

How it effects behaviour- Schemas are used to simplify the world around us, making it easier for us to predict scenarios and understand the things around us. Eg. When giving birth and a male midwife comes in, it can shock the female- holds the belief on the stereotype that midwives are female.

Question 4

What is REBT?

Answer 4

Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy is a form of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT).
Based upon the idea that changes in thinking can lead to changes in behaviour.
Aims to change irrational thought processes into more reasonable, rational thought processes.

Question 5

THERAPY:
Application of Cognitive Assumptions:
Internal Mental Processes
Link to REBT (Eg. Depression)

Answer 5

Behaviour can be influences by our IMP’s (PALM) and this also includes our thinking process.An individual with depression may have faulty thinking processes which can effect their behaviour.

For example, irrational thinking can lead to depression and REBT aims to turn irrational thoughts into more rational beliefs in order to treat mental illness.

Question 6

THERAPY:
Application of Cognitive Assumptions:
Computer Analogy
Link to REBT (Eg. Anxiety)

Answer 6

Mind works like a computer (input, process output). The way an individual processes info can have a direct impact on their behaviour (output).

Eg. As an input, someone may hear someone laughing at work, process through thinking that they are being laughed at and as an output- feel anxious.

REBT aims to change the irrational process into a more positive output.

Question 7

THERAPY:
Application of Cognitive Assumptions:
Schemas
Link to REBT (Eg. Depression)

Answer 7

A schema is a mental template that we use to understand the world around us. Eg- a self-schema helps us understand who we are. (A patient with depression may have developed negative self-schemas).

During REBT, the therapist challenges the patients perception of themselves to attempt to alter their self-schema. The therapist may as if their is any evidence to support their thinking and this will help the patient see it is an unrealistic schema they had towards themselves.

Question 8

THERAPY:
Main Components of REBT:
Mustabatory Thinking
Three important irrational beliefs.
Consequences of MT

Answer 8

Mustabatory Thinking is the source of irrational beliefs- involves the thinking that certain ideas (or beliefs) must be true in order for an individual to be happy.

Three most important irrational beliefs (from Ellis):
‘I must be approved of or accepted by people I find important’- about others.
‘I must do very well or I am worthless’- about self.
‘The world must give me happiness’- about the world.

Consequences of Mustabatory thinking: At the least (disappointment) and at the most (depression).
Such ‘must’ beliefs must be challenged in order to be mentally healthy.

Question 9

THERAPY:
Main Components of REBT:
The ABC Model (what ABC means)
ABC 2 results/ scenarios
An example

Answer 9

Ellis developed an ABC model as a way to deal with irrational thoughts, as the first step is to be able to identify the irrational thoughts.

A: Activating event- an experience which causes distress or frustration.
B: Belief- activating event can lead to an irrational belief
C: Consequences- Irrational belief can lead to self distressing consequences

ABC Scenario 1 (IDEAL)- Negative event (A)- Rational Belief (B)- Healthy Negative Emotion (C)

ABC Scenario 2 (TRYING TO PREVENT)- Negative Event (A)- Irrational Belief (B)- Unhealthy Negative Emotion (C).

A- People Laughing
B (Sc 1)- Thinking they are joking- (Sc 2)- Thinking they are laughing at you.
C (Sc 1)- Join in with them or accept it- (Sc 2)- Causing anxiety.

Question 10

THERAPY:
Main Components of REBT:
ABCDE (D- Disputing)
Examples of Disputing
(E- Effects)
What causes the consequences?

Answer 10

ABC model extended.
D- Disputing Belief- Challenging the irrational belief

Examples of disputing:
Logical Disputing- challenges LOGIC behind self-defeating belief.
Empirical Disputing- questions whether the belief is CONSISTENT with reality.
Pragmatic Disputing- challenges the USEFULNESS of the belief.

E- Effects of disputing- the change of the irrational belief into a rational belief and the effects on behaviour- helps the patient become more self accepting.

It is the irrational belief about the event that causes the consequence, not the activating event itself. Patients often believe A causes C (when B causes C). By disputing the beliefs, the therapist can help the patient understand this.

Question 11

THERAPY:
Main Components of REBT:
Unconditional Positive Regard
What the Therapist must do

Answer 11

This means showing unconditional positive regard no matter what they say, or how unrealistic their thoughts.

The therapist must:
Value the patient at all times
Show respect to the patients and try to build the patients own self value.
A judgement must not be made.
This will help facilitate a change in their beliefs.

Question 12

THERAPY:
Evaluation- Effectiveness:
Research Evidence
Engels et al (1993)
Ellis (1957)
Silverman et al (1992)

Answer 12

Engels et al (1993)- Conducted Meta Analysis on 31 studies- concluded that REBT is an effective treatment for many disorders, including social phobia.

Ellis (1957)- Claimed a 90% success rate- suggesting REBT takes an average of 27 sessions. However, Ellis did not admit that REBT is not always effective as its not suitable for all patients.

Silverman et al (1992)-Conducted Review of 89 studies into the effectiveness of REBT. Fount to be either more effective or equal to other types of therapy (Eg. Systematic D). 49 studies shown for it to be more active than other treatments.

Question 13

THERAPY:
Evaluation- Effectiveness:
Appropriateness

Answer 13

Found to be effective with clinical populations (such as patients with mental disorders or phobias).
Appropriate for non-clinical populations lie patients suffering from specific anxiety.

Question 14

THERAPY:
Evaluation- Effectiveness:
Not suitable for all

Answer 14

Doesn’t work for everyone. Potentially due to some individuals claiming to follow REBT principles but not putting their changed beliefs into actions (therefore seeming like the therapy did not work).

Question 15

THERAPY:
Evaluation- Effectiveness:
Irrational Environments

Answer 15

When a patient has effectively changed their irrational beliefs in therapy, they may sometimes have to go back home or to work which encourages new irrational beliefs.

Not a long term solution to some patients problems.

Question 16

THERAPY:
Evaluation- Ethical Issues:
Psychological Harm

Answer 16

Therapist may aggressively challenge the clients thinking- May cause unnecessary anxiety.

May also be distress caused when the client beliefs differ from those of the therapist, especially in regards to devoutly religious clients.

Question 17

THERAPY:
Evaluation- Ethical Issues:
Over reliance on Therapist

Answer 17

Therapy requires a trusting relationship between the client and therapist- may lead to the client over-relying upon the therapist.

This may be more likely if the patient is surrounded by irrational environments, and the therapy session may act as an escape for the short term.

Question 18

CLASSIC EVIDENCE:
What the research is about
Methodology:
Method
IV & DV
Experimental Design
Participants

Answer 18

Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) research:
Is concerned with the accuracy of Eye Witness Testimony
- Investigate whether leading questions affect the accuracy of memory.

Methodology:
Method: Two Lab Experiments
IV- Word used in each question
DV- speed estimate
Experimental Design- IGD- Independent Group Design
Participants:
Exp 1: 45 Student pps in 5 groups
Exp 2: 150 pps in 3 groups.

Question 19

CLASSIC EVIDENCE:
Procedures (Experiment One):
Film Clips
Questionnaire (incl Critical Question)
No. of Groups (incl word used for each)
Speed Estimates

Answer 19

Film Clips:
45 students shown 7 different clips of different traffic incidents ranging between 5 and 30 seconds long.

Questionnaire (incl Critical Question):
After each clip- received a short questionnaire of what they have seen.
Question- About how fast were the cars going when they —- each other?

No. of Groups (incl word used for each):
45 pps in 5 groups.
Smashed, Bumped, Hit, Collided, Contacted

Speed Estimates:
Recorded in MPH

Question 20

CLASSIC EVIDENCE:
Procedures (Experiment Two) PART ONE:
Aim to investigate 
Film Clip
Critical Question
No. of Groups and word used for each group

Answer 20

Aimed to investigate whether leading questions bias responses or alter the memory that is stored.

Film Clip:
Shown a film of multiple crashes

Critical Question:
About how fast were the cars going when they —- each other?

No. of Groups and word used for each group:
3 groups-
Smashed, Hit, control group was not asked any questions about the accident.

Question 21

CLASSIC EVIDENCE:
Procedures (Experiment Two) PART TWO:
One Week Later
Critical Question

Answer 21

One Week Later:
Returned to Lab 1 week later- asked further questions WITHOUT seeing the video again.
Critical Question:
Did you see any broken glass?

Question 22

CLASSIC EVIDENCE:

Findings (Experiment One)

Answer 22

Smashed (most aggressive word)- mean speed- 40.8 mph
Collided- mean speed- 39.3
Bumped- mean speed- 38.1
Hit- mean speed- 34
Contacted (Least aggressive word)- mean speed- 31.8

(THE MORE AGGRESSIVE THE WORD, THE HIGHER THE MEAN SPEED)

Question 23

CLASSIC EVIDENCE:

Findings (Experiment Two)

Answer 23

Smashed- No. of pps saying yes to broken glass- 16 (32%)
Hit- No. of pps saying yes to broken glass- 7 (14%)
Control- No. of pps saying yes to broken glass- 6 (12%)

More aggressive word- more likely to say yes to broken glass.

Question 24

CLASSIC EVIDENCE:
Conclusion:
What the findings suggest
Explanations for findings:
Response Bias Factors
Altered Memory Representation

Answer 24

What the findings suggest:
The form of the question can systematically affect a witnesses answer to a question.

Response Bias Factors:
Different speed estimates occur because the critical word influences a persons response-
The word ‘Smashed’ resulted in a higher mean speed of 9mph between that and the least aggressive word ‘Hit.’ A ppt may have been thinking between 30-40 mph but using a more aggressive word may have convinced said ppt that the higher of the two is more accurate.

Altered Memory Representation:
Critical word changes a persons memories so that the perception of the accident is altered.
Eg. Smashed is a more aggressive word- pps could have been more influenced that glass was present and the accident was more serious than it actually was.

Question 25

CLASSIC EVIDENCE:
Evaluation of Methodology:
Lab Experiments- Strength and Weakness (plus explanation)
Participants

Answer 25

Lab Experiments-
Strength- Demonstrates a Causal relationship. By using the aggressive words we can clearly see the causal effect on the DV.
Weakness- Lacks Ecological Validity- experiment held in an artificial environment- observed videos.

Participants-
Validity- all pps were students and students often do not drive ( may not know what 40mph looks like).
Population Validity- Potential Lack of driving experiences.

Question 26

CLASSIC EVIDENCE:
Evaluation of Procedures:
Standardised Instructions
Controlled Conditions

Answer 26

Standardised Instructions:
Gives researchers the element of control.
Easier to replicate to increase reliability

Controlled Conditions:
Controlled Variables- all shown the same video- unable to talk to affect results.

Question 27

CLASSIC EVIDENCE:
Evaluation of Procedures:
Demand Characteristics (incl eg)
Use of a control group in Experiment Two

Answer 27

Demand Characteristics:
They knew they were in an experiment so they may have been more influenced to try and discover the aim of the experiment.
Eg. 2nd Experiment- students may have believed they were expected to say yes to the broken glass when the word Smashed was used.

Use of a control group in Experiment Two:
To improve validity.
To show the results of the ‘yes’ was because of the word used and not because of their memory.

Question 28

CLASSIC EVIDENCE:
Findings and Conclusions:
Lab Experiment

Answer 28

Lab Experiment:
Research conducted in highly controlled conditions which reduces the ecological validity of the research (making it harder to generalise the finding to real life eye witnesses).

Question 29

CLASSIC EVIDENCE:
Findings and Conclusions:
Alternate Evidence:
Loftus and Zanni (support)
Yuille and Cutshall (challenges)

Answer 29

Loftus and Zanni:
Similar Research- asked either ‘did you see A/THE broken headlight?’ (THE more likely to say yes).

Yuille and Cutshall:
Questioned 15 witnesses of real life robbery. Found their statements remained accurate even when faced with leading questions.

Question 30

CLASSIC EVIDENCE:
Ethical Issues:
Valid Consent
Right to Withdraw

Answer 30

Valid Consent:
As it was a Lab experiment, valid consent was given and they knew they were in an experiment.
Right to Withdraw:
Yes, it was a lab experiment.

Question 31

CLASSIC EVIDENCE:
Ethical Issues:
Deception
Psychological Harm

Answer 31

Deception:
Yes, as they wouldn’t have known it was for an EWT.
Passive deception as they weren’t told the true intention of the experiment
Psychological Harm:
If someone has past experiences of car crashes- Distress.
As not told the intentions, they may not have known until they saw the video.
Yet they could withdraw at any time.
Potential Embarrassment- Short term.
Potentially second guesses everything about their memory- Long term.

Question 32

Cognitive Approach: 
Strength One:
L &P research (incl impact)
BST
Why its a strength (incl examples)

Answer 32

Scientific Approach- There are clear variables that can me measures, traced and examined.

L &P-
Shown how EWT can be easily distorted by post event info. (Had an impact on police interviewing techniques and a ban on leading questions during interviewing).

Use of Brain Scanning Techniques (BST)-
To identify areas of the brain involved in long and short term memory. Known as Cognitive Neuroscience (Objective and Scientific methods can be used to identify biological mechanisms involved in our Cognitive Processes).

Strength because:
Devoted to pinpointing biological mechanisms involved in our cognitive processes making the approach scientific with clear variables and objectives. (L&P used Lab Experiments and BST as eg).
High Levels of Validity and easily established Causal Relationships.
Can be used to improve understanding of forensic psychology (incl court procedures).

Question 33

Cognitive Approach: 
Strength Two
REBT- (Incl eg)
Piaget- (Incl Eg)
Why it is a strength (incl Examples)

Answer 33

Successful Application to the Real World-
REBT-
Challenges patients perception of themselves in an attempt to improve their self-esteem- changing irrational thoughts to rational ones.
Useful in treating things such as depression.
Ellis claims 90% success rate.
Useful in non-medical purposes such as exam stress.

Piaget-
Theory of cognitive development demonstrated that cognitive abilities develop through set stages has been applied to the real world.
Cognitive abilities in a child and adult differ.
During the concrete operational stage, children need physical objects in front of them to help solve their problems (eg. Maths).

Strength because:
CBT- successful treatment made (REBT is one form of it).
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development used in schools and advancements in effectiveness of EWT.
Treating patients with mental illness, when other treatments have failed (medication).
Improvements in court procedures and education of children.

Question 34

Cognitive Approach: 
Weakness One:
Mechanistic
Example
Why it is a weakness (incl Examples)

Answer 34

Reductionist Approach- Reduces complex behaviour to a simple explanation.
Mechanistic Reductionist- Simplifies the Human Brain down to the mechanics of a computer (input, process, output).
Eg. Depression is considered more of a ‘fault’ than an emotion. Ignores the role of emotion in our thought process and social factors.

Weakness because:
Reduces complex behaviour to a simple explanation.
Eg. Depression, computer analogy, ignoring emotion and other factors that can contribute.
We may lose understanding in trying to explain behaviour.
Reduced treatment of mental illness.

Question 35

Cognitive Approach:
Weakness Two
2 examples (one incl research)

Answer 35

Determinist Approach (‘Soft Determinist’)- All behaviour is determined by internal and external factors.

Eg.
Schemas may determine behaviour-
Mental structure used to organise knowledge and experience and then is used to make sense of objects, situations and people.

Criminal Behaviour could be seen as determined-
Yochelson & Samenow interviewed offenders and found 52 errors in thinking. Assumed that criminal behaviour is determined by their thinking process and not free will.

Weakness because:
Suggests we aren’t in control of our own behaviour and its determined by internal and external factors.
Eg. Behaviour is determined by mental processes and schemas (how we behave due to this) and who we build relationships with is determined by self-schema.
Lack of moral responsibility.
However, soft determinist (even though there is free will, it still believes much of our behaviour is determined).