Cognitive Approach

Question 1

Outline the cognitive approach

Answer 1

The theory that we have a lot of input by encoding sensory stimulus and responding to it are complex mental processes that generate outputs in the forms of behaviour/emotion. But it is the mental processes which cognitive psychologists are interested in.
- Studies allows us to see our internal processing directly affect behaviour through inferred conclusions

Question 2

Outline the process of memory

Answer 2

The process of retaining information after the original thing is no longer present

1. Encoding: Information must be encoded (in a way your brain understands)
   - - Encoding can be done visually, acoustically or semantically (meaning)
2. Storage: Information is stored, or held in memory until needed
3. Retrieval: Information that has been stored must be available to be retrieved or recovered from memory when it required

Question 3

Outline the Multi-store memory model

Answer 3

1. Sensory memory 
(attention)
2. STM -- within it has constant rehearsal and has limited capacity and duration 
(rehearsal and transfer) 
3. LTM 

Sensory memory: info lost through lack of attention
STM: info lost through decay and displacement
LTM: info lost through interference

Question 4

State the 3 claims of the multi-store memory model

Answer 4

1. Memory is made of 3 distinct, separate stores
2. Info moves through model linearly
3. Rehearsal is essential for STM –> LTM

Question 5

Glanzer and Cunitz

- Outline the serial position effect and model

Answer 5

The serial position effect has been used to support the idea that there are separate stores for STM and LTM and refers to investigations in recall accuracy depending on the item’s position within a study list

Primacy effect (LTM): words at the start are recalled with enough time and cognitive capacity to do enough rehearsal for LTM

Regency effect (STM): words at the end are recalled as they are actively processed at point of recall so they are easily available

Asymptote: words less likely to be repeated and rehearsed due to constant bombardment of words

Question 6

Aim (Glanzer and Cunitz)

Answer 6

Examine whether the position of words influences recall (primacy and regency) and see if there are separate stores for memory

Question 7

Method (Glanzer and Cunitz)

Answer 7

• 240 US Army enlisted males were presented lists of words one at a time and asked to recall in any order (free recall)
• Condition 1: half of the PS were asked to recall immediately after
• Condition 2: other half asked to recall after ‘distraction task’ where they counted backwards for 30 seconds

Question 8

Results (Glanzer and Cunitz)

Answer 8

• Condition 1: follows the graph as they recalled both words at the start and end of the list
• Condition 2: destroys regency effect causing recall to be similar as asymptote, but no influence to primacy effect

Question 9

Conclusion (Glanzer and Cunitz)

Answer 9

• Distracter task reduced regency effect since info was lost through interference (supports Multi-store)
• Primacy and regency effect reflects multi-store as model explains how STM has limited capacity and duration and that LTM requires rehearsal
• Supports the idea of two separate stores as while STM was lost LTM was not

Question 10

Outline the working memory model

Answer 10

• Designed in response to criticism of multi-store model that it was far too simplistic and gives STM a much more complex storage area (multicomponent instead of unitary)
• A model on STM only and consists of the Central Executive which controls and monitors activity of 2 slave systems which are the phonological loop and the Visuospatial Sketchpad (VSSP)
• Phonological loop: processes acoustic info with two stores
• – Phonological store: acoustic info
• – Articulatory store: subvocal repetition + processing and mainly revolves around language

Question 11

Baddeley - Dual Processing (Aim)

Answer 11

• Test the claims of the working memory model that the components have limited capacity and the slave systems work independently of each other.

Question 12

Method (Baddeley)

Answer 12

Condition 1: Ps were asked to do 2 tasks simultaneously

• 1 visual task which involved following a movement of light projected onto a desk
• 1 verbal task which involved reciting a nursery out loud

Condition 2: Ps asked to do 2 tasks simultaneously

• 1 visual task as above
• 1 visual task which involved generating images in their mind and manipulating and answering questions about those images

Question 13

Results (Baddeley)

Answer 13

• Condition 1: Ps were able to complete both tasks at the same time without any difficulty
• Condition 2: Ps were unable to do either task very well

Question 14

Conclusion (Baddeley)

Answer 14

• Condition 1 supported notion that slave systems work independently of each other (VSSP processed visual task while phonological loop processed verbal task)
• Condition 2 supports notion that slave systems have limited capacity as both tasks required same slave system (VSSP) and showed that capacity had been exceeded as work was not done well

Question 15

Schema theory and reconstructive memory

- Outline cognitive schema

Answer 15

A collection of knowledge, beliefs and expectations regarding a specific situation, person or circumstance

Question 16

Outline schema theory

Answer 16

Theory suggest we use cognitive schema to:

• help us predict what will happen in an anticipated situation (moderating our behaviour)
• allow memory to be more efficient by storing basic details of a scenario and then “filling the gaps” to make cognitive workload and processing easier

Question 17

Outline the influence of schemas on the reconstruction of memory

Answer 17

Reconstructive memory: both are responsible in the reconstruction of memory since we store key elements and use appropriate schemas to assume the rest, influencing encoding
- Cognitive distortions can thus occur where pre-existing schema does not match the details when it has been reconstructed.

Question 18

Brewer and Treyens (Aim)

Answer 18

Investigate the role of schema in encoding and retrieval of episodic memory

Question 19

Method (Brewer and Treyens)

Answer 19

• 86 University psychology students were seated in a room looking like an office with items in the room being those typically found in one (paper, typewriter) but also items not commonly found and with common items like books OMITTED
• Each P was given 35 seconds to see the room with the same vantage point with only one available chair to sit
• They were called into another room and asked what they remembered by describing the room for someone who had never seen it

Question 20

Results (Brewer and Treyens)

Answer 20

• Ps were more likely to remember items that were congruent with their schema of an office
• Schema incongruent items were less likely to be recalled with some Ps having a higher rate of identifying objects that where schema congruent but not in the room
• There was also a common tendency to change the nature of the objects recalled to match their schema (yellow note pad remembered being on a desk instead of on a chair)

Question 21

Conclusion (Brewer and Treyens)

Answer 21

• pre-existing schemas influenced how Ps remembered new information even believing they saw schema congruent items at recall (reconstructive memory)
• perhaps only schema congruent information was being taken in and processed at point of encoding
• supports schema theory and reconstructive memory since they are used to “fill in the gaps” leading to cognitive distortion
• suggests schemas are playing a role at the point of recall as well since the basic details were remembered but schemas were used to fill in the gaps during recall
• idea that we don’t recall perfectly because we don’t encode correctly (basic details only)

Question 22

Thinking and decision-making

- Outline System 1 (intuitive) and System 2 (rational)

Answer 22

System 1: Intuitive Thinking

• Assumed to be effortless, automatic and fast
• Based on heuristics and experiences usually involving inductive reasoning and is not related to cognitive ability and intelligence

System 2: Rational Thinking

• Assumed to be effortful, conscious, controlled and slower
• Based on abstract reasoning, can be utilised in hypothetical situations (deductive reasoning)
• Higher level function, requires cognitive effort

Systems are separate but interacting `

Question 23

Biases in thinking and decision-making

- Outline the framing effect

Answer 23

• The framing effect is a cognitive bias where people decide on options based on the perceived risks associated e.g. as a loss or as a gain. People tend to avoid risk when a positive frame is presented but seek risks when a negative frame is presented

Question 24

Aim (Tversky and Kahneman)

Answer 24

To test how the framing effect affects our thinking and decision-making

Question 25

Method (Tversky and Kahneman)

Answer 25

• Ps presented with hypothetical situation where an outbreak of disease is expected to kill 600 people
• Two alternative programs proposed where one is a positive frame and the other is negative.
• Ps were given either frames and asked to choose a program.
• Positive frame (highlights gains)
• – Program A: 200 saved
• – Program B: 1/3 probability that 600 saved and 2/3 probability none saved
• Negative frame (highlights losses)
• – Program C: 400 die
• – Program D: 1/3 probability none die and 2/3 probability 600 die

Programs A and C and Programs B and D are identical

Question 26

Results (Tversky and Kahneman)

Answer 26

• Positive frame: Ps more likely to choose risk-adverse option (Program A)
• Negative frame: Ps chose risk-seeking option (D)

Question 27

Conclusion (Tversky and Kahneman)

Answer 27

• Instinctively, loss is perceived as more significant and thus more worthy of avoiding (Intuitive)
• A sure gain is preferred to a probable one while preferable loss is better than sure loss
• Thus decisions about gains (positive frame): utilised system 1 as we feel more certain about a ‘sure’ gain
• Decisions about losses (negative frame): utilised system 2 as we want to minimise losses through the uncertainty but have to think carefully so (System 2)

Question 28

The influence of emotion on cognitive processes

- Influence of emotion

Answer 28

Recent neurobiological research has indicated that emotion has a biological basis which is essential to good decision making instead of impairing it.

Question 29

Outline the somatic marker hypothesis and parts of the brain involved

Answer 29

• Theory suggests that somatic markers are the physical bodily changes we notice when we are in an intense emotional state and these emotions are linked to thoughts and memories which help us with future decisions.
• Brain: the vmPFC is part of the executive system of the brain responsible for forward thinking and making rational plans and utilises somatic markers when needed
• • the amygdala produces the somatic markers and this area is responsible for emotion so as to integrate how the body should respond based on the emotional consequence

Thus, if negative feelings were felt in a previous similar situation, the decision on the current one will be in order to PREVENT THAT NEGATIVE FEELING from being felt again

Question 30

Bechara (Aim)

Answer 30

To test the impact of damage to the vmPFC on decision making in the Iowa Gambling Task

Question 31

Method (Bechara)

Answer 31

• Control group of 13 volunteers compared with a purposive sample of 5 Ps identified as having damage to the vmPFC (via MRI scanning)
• During IGT, research team recorded SCR (skin conductive response) which is a measure of somatic anxiety, the biological sign of stress

Iowa Gambling Task

• Ps asked to select a card from one of 4 decks (A, B, C, D) where cards would either result in financial reward or impose financial penalty
• Decks A and B would give high rewards at first then deliver larger losses as the game went on
• Decks C and D would give small rewards initially but would also have small losses as game continued.

Question 32

Results (Bechara)

Answer 32

• Ps with damage to the vmPFC ‘failed to learn’ to avoid bad cards and continued to make poor decisions despite negative experience.
• Ps with damage to vmPFC also displayed much lower SCR prior to selecting a card showing evidence for lack of somatic markers utilised. (0.14 vs 0.04)

Question 33

Conclusion (Bechara)

Answer 33

• Ps without vmPFC utilised somatic markers (acted as alarm system) to allow their decisions to be improved giving evidence for somatic markers seen through SCR
• vmPFC is thus responsible for somatic markers to trigger feelings of memory of similar decisions as those with damage were unable to process emotion by amygdala (no emotional consequence)

Question 34

Outline the 3 key claims of the working memory model

Answer 34

• Model of STM only
• All 3 components have limited capacity
• The 2 slave systems work independently of each other