Cognitive Approach

Question 1

What do the Models of Memory give insight to?

Answer 1

The Multi-Store Model of Memory and The Working Memory Model provides a framework for an understanding of conceptualisation of human memory process, suggesting a number of components working together to process information.

Question 2

What are the 3 processes in The Multi-Store Model of Memory?

Answer 2

Sensory memory/ buffer, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Question 3

What is the sensory memory/ buffer?

Answer 3

It is where the sensory information (5 senses) is stored very briefly. Information must receive attention in order to transfer into short-term memory.

Question 4

What is short-term memory (STM)?

Answer 4

It is where a limited amount of information is stored for a limited time. STM transferred into long-term memory (LTM) through rehearsal.

Question 5

What is long-term memory (LTM)

Answer 5

It is where memories are stored after rehearsal. Information can be recalled from here. LTM has unlimited capacity and duration.

Question 6

What are the 4 components of The Working Memory Model?

Answer 6

Central executive, phonological loop, episodic buffer, and visuospatial sketchpad.

Question 7

What is the phonological loop?

Answer 7

It handles auditory and verbal information i.e. sound and speech. It is divided into two separate components: the phonological store (the inner ear where speech/ sound information must go through the articulatory control system (ACS) to be remembered) and the ACS (the inner voice where auditory information is rehearsed in order to be recalled).

Question 8

What are cognitive schemas?

Answer 8

They are seen as mental representations that organise our knowledge, beliefs and expectations.

Question 9

What have studies indicated about schemas?

Answer 9

That they influence memory processes in encoding, storage and retrieval.

Question 10

What is schema processing?

Answer 10

It is a large extent automatic and non-conscious which saves cognitive energy but at the same time could result in biases in thinking and memory processes. E.g. distortion and stereotypes.

Question 11

What is distortion?

Answer 11

Effort after meaning - the attempt to match unfamiliar ideas into a familiar framework.

Question 12

What are the 3 types of distortion?

Answer 12

Assimilation, levelling, and sharpening.

Question 13

What is assimilation?

Answer 13

Changing information to be more consistent with an individual’s own cultural expectations.

Question 14

What is levelling?

Answer 14

Shortening information that seems unimportant.j

Question 15

What is sharpening?

Answer 15

Changing the order of the information to make sense and more familiar to the culture of the individual.

Question 16

What are stereotypes?

Answer 16

An example of schema processing based on a fixed mental representation of a group of individuals.

Question 17

What can stereotypes lead to?

Answer 17

Biases, distortion, and generalisation, and they an unconsciously affect judgement and memory (which in turn affect behaviour).

Question 18

What does thinking involve?

Answer 18

Using information and doing something with it. E.g. deciding something which makes thinking and decision making closely related.

Question 19

What factors is thinking based on?

Answer 19

Concepts, processes and goals.

Question 20

What is thinking and decision-making often referred to?

Answer 20

Rational (controlled) and intuitive thinking (automatic).

Question 21

What are the two systems models of thinking?

Answer 21

System 1 - intuitive, quick and requiring limited effort, influenced by biases.
System 2 - rational, goal directed, requires intentional effort and time, analyses/ controls for biases.

Question 22

What is framing effect?

Answer 22

It is based on the theory of reasoned action and theory of planned behaviour (concerned with the relationship between attitudes and behaviour when making choices). More specifically, it is a heuristic of making a choice under risk; describes how the choice depends on whether the problem is formulated (framed) in terms of potential gains or potential losses.

Question 23

What are heuristics?

Answer 23

It is about the adaptive decision-maker framework including emotions and goals in the decision process. Heuristics are mental shortcuts that people taken when there is no time or resources to analyse the situation thoroughly.

Question 24

What is anchoring bias?

Answer 24

It is part of heuristics and uses an initial piece of information to make subsequent judgments. Anchoring bias may have cause the intuitive though system to make erroneous estimates.

Question 25

What is the main idea of reconstructive memory?

Answer 25

That human memory is not an exact copy of events but rather a reconstruction that may be altered over time, through discussions with others or input from the media.

Question 26

How can memory be changed?

Answer 26

During storage, processing and retrieval e.g. due to schema processing.

Question 27

Why is reconstructive memory important to understand?

Answer 27

Important in our daily lives but in particular in relation to eyewitness testimony.

Question 28

What is confabulation?

Answer 28

A memory based on a fabricated distorted or misinterpreted memory often believed to be true in spite of contradictory evidence. This is particularly apparent in eyewitness testimony as memories can be distorted by leading questions.

Question 29

What are the common sources of biases in thinking and decision-making?

Answer 29

They rely on intuitive thinking, take cognitive shortcuts, focus on a limited amount of available information, seek out information that confirms pre-existing beliefs, tendency to avoid the mental stress of holding inconsistent cognitions.

Question 30

How does emotions influence cognitive processes?

Answer 30

Emotion and cognition are intertwined. Emotions are believed to perform an adaptive function in that they shape the experience of events and guide the individual in how to react to events, objects and situations. Emotions influence our perception of the world and how we remember.

Question 31

What is covert rehearsal?

Answer 31

Replaying the previously witnessed event in one’s own memory.

Question 32

What is overt rehearsal?

Answer 32

Discussing an event with other people.

Question 33

What is flashbulb memory?

Answer 33

A special memory mechanism; vivid and highly detailed recollection of the circumstances surrounding witnessing or receiving the news of an unexpected and emotionally arousing event.

Question 34

What is personal consequentiality?

Answer 34

The extent to which an event is perceived as significant to oneself personally; if it is perceived as significant, it arouses an emotional reaction.