Cognitive approach Flashcards
Evaluating the cognitive approach
Concerned with internal mental processes to explain behaviour
Cognitive psychology was influenced by Wundt, who founded the first psychology lab in Germany
He wanted to develop ways of studying internal mental processes scientifically and systematically
About it?
3 assumptions
Explanation for relationship formation
CBT (therapy)
Classic evidence: Loftus and Palmer (1974) methodology, procedures, findings, conclusion
Classic evidence: Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) evaluation of methodology, ethical and social issues, and alternative evidence
Contemporary debate: the reliability of eyewitness testimony (Unit 2)
What are the 3 assumptions?
computing analogy
internal mental processes
Assumption 1?: computing analogy
Cognitive psychologists compare the human mind with a computer
In basic terms, we take in information ( input)
The information is changed and stored ( processing)
When necessary, the information is recalled ( output)
To process information, 4 cognitive processes must occur
what are the 4 processes that occur?
LANGUAGE
ATTENTION
MEMORY
PERCEPTION
Lamp?
the mind is compared to the hardware of a computer and cognitive processing is the computer software
What is an example of this?
multistore model of memory ( 1968) - Atkinson and Shiffran
The multi store model?
Sensory memory : duration: a quarter to half a second ( taking in info from senses)
Short-term memory: duration: 0-18 seconds capacity: 7+ or - 2 items
Encoding—auditory
maintenance rehearsal is the process of verbally or mentally repeating information which allows the duration of short-term memory to be extended beyond 30 seconds
Rehearsing a phone number
Long-term memory duration: unlimited : capacity
Encoding is mainly semantic—language
For information to enter the long-term memory, there must be an elaborate rehearsal, which is the process of linking new information in a meaningful way
Elaborate rehearsal is more effective than maintenance rehearsal for remembering new information as it ensures the information is encoded correctly ( it is a deeper level of information processing)
Assumption 2: internal mental processing?
Human beings are just information processors
Cognitive processes work together to enable us to make sense of the world around us
The most well studied cognitive processes are language , attention, memory, and perception
These processes all relate to each other and work together to help individuals understand their environment
To recognise a dog, we have to know it is a dog. We pay attention to it , perceive its features and search our memory to find a match
If we have experienced it before, we can name it through the knowledge of language
Our mental processes work together in a split second to respond to the world around us
This is known as information processing
Investigating internal mental processes?
Cognitive psychologists often use introspection to infer internal thought processes. This method, developed by Wilhelm Wundt in 1879, involved trained participants describing their thoughts and feelings in response to stimuli, like a ticking metronome. Though criticized for lacking scientific objectivity, introspection is still used today in studies on behaviors like gambling and alcoholism. For example, Griffiths (1994) studied regular and non-regular gamblers to compare their thought processes. Participants were asked to verbalize their thoughts without censoring or justifying them. The study found that regular gamblers exhibited more irrational thoughts, such as attributing wins to the machine “liking them” and losses to a lack of concentration.
Assumption 3: schemers
Schemers are mental frameworks built from past experiences and stored in long-term memory, helping us organize information. For example, our schemer for a dog might include traits like four legs, fur, barking, and chasing cats. Schemers are shaped by interactions with others and the world, but they don’t always reflect reality. For instance, a schemer for burglars might involve a young male in a balaclava, black-and-white clothing, and carrying a sack. Schemers also help us identify societal roles, such as those of lawyers, policemen, or firemen.
Cognitive explanation for relationship formation
Schemers
Cognitive explanations for relationship formation suggest that our schemers—mental frameworks about others—guide our feelings and behaviors toward them. For example, Dion (1972) found that people tend to attribute positive personal qualities, such as kindness or compassion, to physically attractive individuals, a phenomenon known as the halo effect. This leads us to desire relationships with those we perceive as attractive. Additionally, people develop self-schemers, or mental frameworks about themselves, which also influence how they form relationships.
Internal mental processes?
Internal mental processes (IMP) play a key role in relationship formation, particularly through perception and memory. Perception is dynamic and constantly evolving; for example, starting a conversation with a stranger may change your perception of them, but your initial impression often remains influential. Memory also affects relationship formation—positive past experiences can motivate individuals to seek new relationships. Overall, our internal mental processes shape how we perceive others and influence our decisions to form connections.
Main components of CBT
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) focuses on changing negative thought patterns that contribute to psychological disorders like depression and anxiety. It is based on the idea that our perceptions shape our behavior, and irrational thoughts can lead to mental health issues. CBT involves cognitive restructuring, where therapists help clients challenge distorted thinking, like negative beliefs about themselves, the world, or their future (the “cognitive triad”). Clients also use behavioral techniques like roleplay and reality testing. The therapy includes a dysfunctional thought diary, where clients track negative thoughts, rate their intensity, and develop more rational responses.
Formation of romantic relationships?
The formation of romantic relationships is influenced by self-schemers, which shape how we perceive ourselves and govern our self-concept. The matching hypothesis suggests that we are more likely to engage in relationships with people who have a similar level of physical attractiveness to ourselves. Murstein (1972) found that dating or engaged couples often have similar attractiveness levels. Walster (1966) also suggested that people tend to be attracted to others who match their own perception of their attractiveness, though compromises are sometimes made to avoid rejection.
Cognitive restructuring?
Cognitive restructuring involves the therapist and client working together to change negative thought patterns. For example, if a client feels distressed about overhearing something, the therapist asks for evidence and explores the worst-case scenario to challenge the thinking.
Pleasant activity scheduling?
Pleasant Activity Scheduling involves planning enjoyable activities to boost mood and promote positive emotions. Clients are encouraged to engage in at least one pleasurable activity each day, such as achieving a fitness goal (e.g., lifting more weights at the gym) or enjoying a meal out with friends. These activities help shift focus away from negative thinking patterns through behavioral activation—changing behavior to improve mental health.
Clients track their feelings after each activity, helping reinforce positive experiences and move away from maladaptive behaviors. For example, after a week of planned activities, someone might feel less anxious after engaging in hobbies like painting or socializing, which encourages a shift toward healthier thought patterns.
Evaluate the effectiveness and ethical issues of CBT?
Effectiveness of CBT: CBT is highly effective in treating depression and anxiety. Studies show it can be as effective as drug therapy. For example, Jarett (1999) found CBT was as effective as antidepressants in treating severe depression over 10 weeks, although the lack of statistical data limits reliability. Similarly, Holland (1992) reported no significant difference between CBT and drug therapy in a 10-week trial.
However, the success of CBT depends on the competence of the therapist, as effective treatment is influenced by how well the therapist plans and structures sessions, reviews the dysfunctional thought diary, provides relaxation techniques, and builds a positive relationship with the client. Kuyken (2009) found that 15% of CBT’s success is attributed to the therapist’s skill.
Ethical Issues: CBT requires active participation from clients, which may not be suitable for everyone, especially those with severe mental health issues or a lack of self-awareness. It can also put pressure on clients to change ingrained thought patterns, which may not always be comfortable. Additionally, since CBT involves structured interventions, it may lack the flexibility needed for some individuals, potentially limiting its effectiveness in certain cases. Ethical concerns also arise regarding confidentiality and the emotional vulnerability that clients may experience during sessions.
Individual differences: CBT may be more suitable for some people in comparison to others
Individual Differences in CBT: CBT may not be suitable for everyone. It is less effective for individuals with rigid, deeply ingrained irrational beliefs, as these are harder to change. Additionally, CBT may be less effective for those who are highly stressed, as stress can interfere with the cognitive and behavioral processes required for therapy.
Empowerment?
Empowerment in CBT: CBT empowers clients by helping them develop their own coping strategies, emphasizing personal agency and free will. Unlike drug therapy, CBT is not based on a biological approach and encourages the belief that change is possible through active engagement in the therapeutic process.
Evaluation of ethical issues
The cognitive approach in therapy assumes clients are responsible for their disorder, which can be empowering but may overlook situational factors like family or relationships. Blaming the individual for their thoughts and behavior might hinder recovery, as other life aspects may need attention. An ethical debate arises regarding what constitutes irrational thinking. Therapists may push clients to change thoughts that they consider irrational, but clients might view them as rational. Abrahamson (1979) suggested that depressive realists see the world more accurately, while “normal” individuals distort it positively. This raises concerns that CBT could potentially harm self-esteem and cause psychological harm.
Classic evidence?
Background?
Loftus and Palmer (1974) studied the impact of leading questions on eyewitness testimony (EWT), focusing on how language affects memory. They found that questioning by authorities, such as police, can alter a witness’s perception of events. The study investigated how dynamic verbs (showing movement) and onomatopoeia influenced speed estimates. They noted that people are generally poor at estimating speed or distance, making them vulnerable to influence by leading questions, which may introduce social desirability bias. The research aimed to highlight the inaccuracy of EWT and how questioning techniques can shape memory.
Methodology?
Loftus and Palmer (1974) conducted two lab experiments with independent group designs to study the effects of leading questions on eyewitness testimony. The experiments used true independent and dependent variables, allowing control over extraneous variables, but they lacked ecological validity and mundane realism. Each group was exposed to different levels of the independent variable. Experiment 1 had 45 participants, while Experiment 2 had 150, both consisting of student participants. This design minimized bias and prevented participants from guessing the study’s aim.
Procedure ( experiment 1)
In Experiment 1, participants watched 7 film clips of different traffic accidents, ranging from 5 to 30 seconds. These clips, originally made for driver safety films, were shown to provoke emotional responses, as individuals typically feel more detached when viewing films. After viewing each clip, participants filled out a questionnaire, which included a critical question about the speed of the vehicles, phrased differently with words like “hit,” “smash,” “collided,” “bumped,” and “contacted.” The questionnaire aimed to assess the impact of the wording on speed estimates. The strength of the procedure lies in its controlled environment, but a weakness is the potential for limited ecological validity due to the use of film clips rather than real-life accidents.
Procedure ( experiment 2)
In Experiment 2, the aim was to investigate whether leading questions influence a person’s response or alter their memory. Part 1 involved showing participants a film of a multiple car crash lasting less than 4 seconds. They were asked various questions, including one critical question about speed. Group 1 (50 participants) was asked, “How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?” Group 2 (50 participants) was asked, “How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?” Group 3 (50 participants) was the control group and received no critical question. This setup allowed for a comparison of the effects of different verb choices on participants’ speed estimates.
Part 2 ( 1 week later)
In Part 2, one week later, participants returned to the lab and were asked questions about the filmed accident. The critical question was, “Did you see any broken glass?” despite there being no broken glass in the film.
Findings Experiment 1
Experiment 1 Results:
Verb Used Mean Speed Estimate (MPH)
Smashed 40.8
Collided 39.3
Bumped 38.1
Hit 34.0
Contacted 31.8
The group given the word “smashed” estimated a higher speed (40.8 MPH) than the other groups, suggesting the influence of the language used on speed perception.
Experiment 2 Findings:
Verb Condition Yes (Reported Broken Glass) No (Reported No Broken Glass)
Smashed 16 34
Hit 7 43
Control 6 44
Participants in the “smashed” condition gave higher speed estimates, similar to Experiment 1.
Part 2:
One week later, participants were asked if they saw broken glass. In the “smashed” group, 16 reported seeing broken glass (despite there being none), compared to just 7 in the “hit” group and 6 in the control group.
Group 2 - they are the hit condition?
Only 7 reported broken glass
43 reported no broken glass
Group 3 - control condition
only 6 reported broken glass
Conclusion?
Loftus and Palmer’s study demonstrated that altering a single word in a question could significantly influence a witness’s response. They proposed two explanations for this effect: first, response bias, where the critical word biases the person’s answer without changing their actual memory; and second, memory distortion, where the critical word alters the witness’s perception of the event, making it appear more severe. In Experiment 2, participants exposed to the word “smashed” were more likely to recall seeing broken glass, even though there was none. This finding suggests that leading questions do not merely influence responses, but can actually distort a person’s memory of the event.
Evaluation of the methodology + procedure
Controlled experiment
The study used a controlled experiment where the independent variable (IV), the verb used in the question, was manipulated to observe its effect on the dependent variable (DV), which was the estimated speed. The advantage of this experimental design is that it allows for a causal relationship to be demonstrated. As a lab study, potential confounding variables were controlled, ensuring that any change in the DV was due to the IV. Conducting a field experiment would have been unethical, as it would have required creating a real car crash.
Ecological validity?
The ecological validity of the study is questionable because participants watched film clips, which do not replicate the emotional intensity or seriousness of witnessing a real accident. This may impact the accuracy of their eyewitness testimony. Studies like Foster (1994) and Yuille (1986) found that real-life scenarios, such as witnessing a robbery, lead to more accurate identification and reporting. For example, Yuille’s study in Canada showed that witnesses gave accurate reports months after the event despite being exposed to misleading questions. Buckout (1980) also found low accuracy in a televised experiment with 2,000 participants.
The sample?
The sample consisted of US college students, which introduces cultural bias, as different groups may react differently to misleading information. Eyewitnesses gather information from both direct observation and exposure to misleading details. Shacter (1991) found that elderly individuals struggle to remember the source of information, making them more susceptible to misleading information.
Alternative evidence?
Loftus (2002) conducted a study where college students evaluated Disneyland advertising material, which included misleading information about Bugs Bunny and Ariel, characters that were not actually present. Participants in the Bugs and Ariel groups falsely remembered shaking hands with these characters, showing how misinformation can create false memories.
Ethical issues + social implications?
Lack of validity
Loftus and Palmer did not obtain valid consent from participants, which could have affected their behavior if they knew the true aims of the study. The use of deception was justified by the researchers to explore eyewitness testimony inaccuracy, as no psychological or physical harm occurred. However, exposing participants to a real accident would have caused psychological harm, making the study’s ethical concerns debatable.
Contemporary debate: the reliability of witness testimony including children
Introduction?
In 1969, Laszlo and Virag were wrongfully convicted of a crime based on eyewitness testimony, despite having an alibi and contradictory evidence. After serving his sentence, it was discovered that another person had committed the crime, leading to Virag’s pardon. Lord Devlin’s 1976 report recommended that judges instruct juries not to rely solely on eyewitness testimony unless there is substantial corroborative evidence. However, this recommendation was not made law, raising questions about the reliability of eyewitness testimony in today’s justice system.
Eyewitnesses = not reliable
post event information
Eyewitness testimony can be unreliable due to post-event information. In Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) study, information suggested after an event became incorporated into the original memory. Similarly, Loftus and Zanni (1975) showed that subtle changes in wording, such as “a” versus “the,” can significantly influence recollections. This demonstrates how questioning can distort a witness’s memory of the event, suggesting that eyewitness testimony may not always be accurate.
Crimes = emotive experiences
Eyewitnesses may be unreliable because witnessing a crime can be emotionally traumatising. Freud suggested that painful memories are repressed into the unconscious as a defense mechanism, known as repression or motivated forgetting. This can make it difficult for eyewitnesses to accurately recall details of the crime, reducing their reliability.
Child witnesses are not reliable
Child witnesses are often unreliable due to their susceptibility to fantasy and external suggestions. Research has shown that younger children, particularly those under 5, are less accurate in identifying perpetrators from lineups compared to older children or adults. A study by Pozzulo and Lindsey (1998) found that children aged 5-13 were more likely to make incorrect identifications in target-absent lineups, possibly due to a heightened sensitivity to please authorities, leading them to give false positive answers.
Memory is reconstructed?
Memory can be influenced by schemas, which help us process information quickly but can also distort our recollections. For example, our “criminal schema” may cause us to remember a suspect based on expectations shaped by media portrayals of criminals. Yarme (1993) found that participants classified individuals into “good guys” or “bad guys” based on common schema, suggesting that preconceived ideas about a criminal’s appearance can impact eyewitness identification. This means witnesses may choose someone who matches their schema rather than the actual perpetrator.
Eye witnesses are reliable?
Eyewitnesses can be reliable, especially for central details. Research often focuses on details, like speed, that are hard to estimate or peripheral, which are more vulnerable to distortion. However, Loftus (1979) showed that participants could accurately recall central details, like the color of a purse, even when exposed to misleading post-event information. This suggests that eyewitness recollection of key details is more resistant to distortion than previously thought.
Crimes are emotive experiences?
Emotional events, such as crimes, may lead to more accurate and long-lasting memories, known as “flashbulb” memories. Research by Cahill and McGaugh (1995) suggests that hormones like adrenaline enhance memory storage, meaning the emotion surrounding a crime may improve memory reliability rather than reduce it.
Child witnesses are reliable?
Davis et al. (1989) found that children aged 6-7 and 10-11 are generally accurate in their memories and do not fabricate details when testifying. Their memory for important details is also less influenced by adult suggestions. This challenges prior claims about child witness unreliability. Anastasi and Rhodes (2006) showed that all age groups are more accurate in identifying offenders from their own age group, suggesting that children may be more reliable when identifying other children involved in crimes.
Memory may be reconstructive but that does not mean it is unreliable?
In cases where the eyewitness knows the perpetrator, such as in 90% of rapes reported by Rapecrisis, their identification is likely to be reliable, even in traumatic situations. Yuille and Cutshall’s research shows that eyewitness accuracy in real-life crimes is higher than in lab-based studies. Despite the reconstructive nature of memory, their study found that eyewitness recollections remained accurate over time and were not as affected by leading questions as expected.
Conclusion?
It is challenging for psychologists to definitively determine the reliability of eyewitnesses. However, research has led to a more critical approach to eyewitness recollections, resulting in methods like cognitive interviews (to enhance accuracy) and sequential lineups (to prevent bias). Additionally, the increasing use of CCTV in the UK is likely to reduce the impact of unreliable eyewitness testimony in the future.
Ethical, social and economic implications?
Ethical, social, and economic implications arise from wrongful convictions linked to eyewitness misidentification. Huff et al. (1986) found that 60% of wrongful convictions involved errors in eyewitness testimony, highlighting significant ethical concerns. However, excessive skepticism may also pose dangers, as Green (1990) noted that jurors’ awareness of misidentification could affect their judgment. While safeguards like the Police and Criminal Evidence Act (PACE) exist in the UK, wrongful convictions still carry significant economic costs, including retrials and compensation. The most critical implication is the potential freedom of the real perpetrator, posing a societal risk.
