cognitive Flashcards
1
Q
view of the mind/body problem - type identity theory
A
a mental state’s equivalent to a specific pattern of neural events
cannot be true- neural patterns differ in ppl performing the same event
2
Q
view of the mind/body problem - functionalism
A
distinction between structure of a mental state & function of a metal state
3
Q
Information processing analogy for thought
A
input -> processing -> output
brain runs like a computer
cognition = the processing of these internal representations
4
Q
the computational metaphor for thought
A
assumes:
the mind contains symbolic representations (limited & well-defined set of symbols stored in memory that represent something in the real world)
cognition’s the product of operations (internal processes that act on symbolic representations - deployed according to rules stored in memory)
5
Q
3 levels of description for cognition
A
Marr, 1982
- computational theory level- function of cognition
- representation & algorithm- how does cognition work
- hardware level- how are representations instantiated in the real world
6
Q
Modularity I theory (Marr, 1982)
A
human cognition’s composed of modules that have a specific function/process
cognitive activity is comprised of the activation of several independent modules
damage to 1 module doesn’t necessarily affect processing of other modules
modules correspond to brain areas
modules are similar across humans
7
Q
Modularity II theory (Fodor, 1983)
A
distinguished input systems & central processes.
input/output systems- process incoming sensory info & transfer info to processors. domain-specific
central processor- make decisions, plans actions, isn’t modular
8
Q
how to identify modules
A
dissociation - manipulation that affects 1 cognitive task & not a different task
double dissociation - articulatory suppression disrupts verbal & not spatial memory, making saccades (eye-movement) disrupts spatial, but not verbal memory)
~ controlled by different modules
9
Q
what is cognitive neuropsychology?
A
brain damage participants- can tell us about the localisation of functions etc.
limitations - don’t know what’s normal performance for that participant, functional reorganisation, doesn’t tell us when operations happen, & damage is rarely focal
10
Q
what is attention?
A
a state in which cognitive resources are focused on certain aspects of the environment rather than on others.
11
Q
Modular model of attention
A
3 components
alerting/arousal (central process)
selection/orienting (input module)
executive (central process)
12
Q
what is the filter theory of attention?
A
Broadbent (1958)
an early theory of attention proposing that unattended channels of information are filtered prior to identification.
only 1 sensory input’s allowed through the filter
13
Q
evidence of the filter theory of attention
A
the cocktail party effect
Shadowing tasks
14
Q
what is the cocktail party effect?
A
the ability to attend to one of several speech streams while ignoring others, as when one is at a cocktail party. Research in this area in the early 1950s suggested that the unattended messages are not processed, but later findings indicated that meaning is identified in at least some cases. For example, the mention of one’s name is processed even if it occurs in an unattended speech stream.
15
Q
Cherry’s shadowing task (1953)
A
get 1 message in 1 ear and 1 in the other- very little info is attained from the ignored input.
Didn’t notice the language changing/talking backwards or remember words, but noticed a beep
~ unattended info isn’t processed
16
Q
evaluation of the filter theory
A
+ accounts for the findings of Cherry
- not all unattended info is lost - the theory doesn’t account for analysis of info from the unattended ear - there’s breakthrough from the unattended ear
17
Q
what is the attenuation theory of attention?
A
a version of the filter theory proposing that unattended messages are attenuated (i.e., processed weakly) but not entirely blocked from further processing. According to this theory, items in unattended channels of information have different thresholds of recognition depending on their significance to the individual. Thus, a significant word (e.g., the person’s name) would have a low threshold and, when mentioned, would be recognized even if that person’s attention is concentrated elsewhere (e.g., in conversation with someone else).
18
Q
what is the spotlight model of attention?
A
a model of visual attention that likens the focus of attention to a spotlight. Information outside of the spotlight is presumed not to receive processing that requires attention.
19
Q
what is overt attention?
A
attention directed to a location with eye-movements (i.e., by directly ‘looking’ at it)
20
Q
what is covert attention?
A
attention directed to a location without eye-movements (i.e., without directly ‘looking’ at it).
21
Q
what is the Posner cueing task?
A
participants are quicker to detect objects at places that have been cued before (e.g. by an arrow), that is, where previously a salient stimulus has been presented.
22
Q
what are the 2 systems of orienting attention?
A
exogenous:
involuntary, stimulus-driven, fast, inferior parietal lobe & ventral frontal regions, transient, inhibitory after-effect
endogenous:
orient to task relevant location, voluntary, goal-directed, slow, sustained, superior parietal lobe
23
Q
what is the feature integration theory for attention?
A
a two-stage theory of visual attention. In the first (preattentive) stage, basic features (e.g., colour, shape) are processed automatically, independently, and in parallel. In the second (attentive) stage, other properties, including relations between features of an object, are processed serially, one object (or group) at a time, and are “bound” together to create a single object that is consciously perceived.
24
Q
what is the binding problem?
A
the theoretical issue of how the brain perceives and represents different features, or conjunctions of properties, as one object or event - could be feature or conjunction
25
what is the difference between a conjunction and a feature visual search?
conjunction- identification of a target defined by a combination of two features (e.g., search for a yellow square among red and yellow circles and red squares). Also referred to as serial search.
feature- identification of a pop-out target, defined by a single feature (e.g., search for the only square among a display of circles)
26
what are illusory conjunctions?
the attribution of a characteristic of one stimulus to another stimulus when the stimuli are presented only briefly. For example, the colour of one form can be attributed to a different form.
27
what is the zoom lens model of attention
constricted into a highly focused beam (subtending as little as a fraction of a degree of angle) or dilated to even distribution over the entire visual field. Because of limited processing capacities, however, there is a tradeoff between size adjustment and detail: An increase in the area attended results in a decrease in the resolution of detail about stimuli within that area.
28
what is endogenous attention?
attention that is deliberately applied and controlled by the individual
29
what is exogenous attention?
attention that is captured by a prominent or salient stimulus—for example, in the peripheral visual field—rather than deliberately applied or focused by the individual.
30
what is dichotic listening?
the process of receiving different auditory messages presented simultaneously to each ear. Listeners experience two streams of sound, each localized at the ear to which it is presented, and are able to focus on the message from one ear while ignoring the message from the other ear
31
difference between filter & resource theories of attention.
filter - attention prevents the processing of irrelevant stimuli
resource - attention permits the selection of appropriate responses
32
Kahneman resource theory for attention
capacity's related to the level of arousal
| resource is used flexibly across tasks (pool of resources = central executive).
33
what is the capacity limit on attention?
3-4 items
Sperling partial report- P's could only encode 3-4 letters
change blindness- effect vanished if <3 objects are present
multiple object tracking - less accurate when >4.
loci limit could be up to 4
34
what is change blindness?
observers often fail to notice large changes to objects or scenes when the change coincides with a brief visual disruption
35
evidence that attention capacity could be 1 item
Downing & Dodds (2004)
shown 2 shapes - 1 is target & 1 has to be remembered.
do a task, and if memory stimuli doesn't catch attention, P's are less likely to remember it (irrelevant for task)
36
bottleneck in attentional processing
when unattended info is not processed
filter theory- place bottleneck early in processing (attention operates at the sensory level of analysis)
resource theory- late in processing. all info is processed semantically & attention operates at the level of response selection
37
evidence for early selection (attention)
Shadowing - poor recall for info in unattended ear.
selective looking- miss more evens when 2 videos are overlapped.
change blindness- 2 images switching in rapid succession & can't see change when you're not paying attention to the object
inattentional blindness- miss unexpected objects when not paying attention
ERP studies- focus attention between 60 & 100ms if object appears (p1000)
38
evidence that unfiltered stimuli can be processed
breakthrough during shadowing.
| Led to attenuated filter - irrelevant info can pass through filter if capacity's not filled by relevant info
39
evidence for early selection from attention affects signal enhancement
attention enhances spatial resolution
| attention locations have higher perceived contract
40
evidence for early selection from neurophysiology
attention modulates responses of early visual areas
| attention lowers phosphene thresholds in V1
41
evidence for late selection in attention
the meaning of a distracting stimuli's processed (results in stimulus conflict)- e.g. Flanker effects, stroop effect, & negative priming
psychological refractory period- 2 stimuli presented in quick succession & reaction to the 2nd stimuli is slowed (only 1 response can be selected at a time
electrophysiology- P's can detect an occasional probe stimuli in shadowing task (N1 neurons)
42
what is the flanker effect?
observer decide what stimuli to focus on - still remember ones they didn't intend to
43
what is negative priming?
prior exposure to a stimulus unfavourably influences the response to the same stimulus.
44
what is the perceptual load theory for attention?
reconciles early vs. late selection
there's a 'passive' limited-capacity filter & an 'active' central resource.
the filter processes the perceptual properties of stimuli
the central resource is used for identification & decision making
perceptual load- how hard it is to process perceptual features of a display. A low load means all items in a display pass through the filter & get analysed. A high load means only relevant info passes through the filter.
e.g. less interference when doing a task in a high-load condition.
45
neurophysiological evidence for the perceptual load theory
perceptual load modulates the activity of early visual areas
| there's higher intensity TMS in the high load task compared to the low load
46
Single resource theories for attention
there's 1 pool of cognitive resources that has a limited capacity which is used flexibly across tasks. the pool = attention/central executive
If demands exceed capacity, performance suffers.
Motivation & arousal increase cognitive resources (the resource is only needed for consciously controlled behaviour).
47
evaluation of single resource theories for attention
+explains why dual-tasking can lead to poor performance
- no independent assessment of central capacity
- experimental evidence consistent w/ multiple resource theories
- tasks in the same modality are more disruptive than in diff modalities
48
Multiple resource theories for attention & evaluation
There are different pools of attentional resource- similar tasks compete for the same resources.
- doesn't address touch
- ignores co-ordination problems for dual tasks
- some disruption for dual tasks in diff modalities
49
Model of Salvucci & Taatgen (2011) for attention
a given cognitive resource can be used by only 1 process at any given time. - once resources aren't needed for the primary task, they're attributed to a secondary task.
50
factors that impact performance on dual tasks
similarity
practice
difficulty
51
Similarity's impact on performance on dual tasks
how similar the input is (stimulus modality)
how similar the output is (response modality)
worse performance when the tasks are similar
52
Difficulty's impact on performance on dual tasks
harder tasks require more info processing (require more attention).
may also require more coordination (processing requirement's more than the sum of the 2 tasks)
53
Practice's impact on performance on dual tasks
the more a dual task is practised, the better performance becomes.
Spelke et al. - taught 2 students to read stories & take dictation - after 6 weeks of training, reading speed was normal & handwriting improved.
54
why does practice impact on performance on dual tasks?
ppl develop new strategies to minimise interference.
practice reduces the amount of cognitive resource the task needs.
practice helps differentiate between tasks.
practice reduces the no of different cognitive processes required.
55
explanation for the impact of practising on dual task performance.
practised tasks become automatic & don't need attention.
56
Shiffrin & Schneider (1977)- differences between controlled & automatic attentional processes
theoretical distinction.
controlled processes:
require engagement of limited attentional resources, conscious, used flexibly
automatic processes:
no capacity limit, don't require attention, hard to modify when learned.
57
Norman & Schallice (1986) theory for automatic attentional processing
1- fully automatic processing's controlled by the schemas
2- contention scheduling - chooses between simultaneously active schema & biased by goals/desires
3- deliberate control by the supervisory attention system - system for overriding automatically generated behaviours (i.e. generating novel response)
58
evidence for Norman & Schallice's (1986) theory
action slips- 35 ppl kept a diary & av 1 action slip a day (e.g. putting something in the wrong place)
occur when attention is elsewhere (attention resources are engaged in something else)
59
Norman & Schallice (1986) theory for automatic attentional processing - evaluation
+ desc properties of automatic processes
+ influential
- descriptive
- practice could speed processing or change it
60
Instance attentional theory
how does practice lead to automaticity?
each encounter w/ a stimulus produces a separate memory trace & repeated encounters produce a greater store of info about the stimulus & how to process it.
More knowledge means retrieval is faster
automaticity occurs when the stimulus directly triggers the retrieval of a past solution from memory.
In other cases, the solution must be arrived at using conscious strategies/heuristics.
61
Decompositional approach to attention
there's no firm divide between automaticity & non-automaticity
62
what is mental imagery?
an internal representation that creates the experience of sense-perception in the absence of the appropriate sensory input.
63
theory of mental imagery - functional equivalence
imagery is generated using neural machinery used for sensation & motor control (i.e. the image resembles the perception)
Visual imagery relies on the visual system etc.
64
theory of mental imagery - propositional codes
imagery is an epiphenomenal product of propositional codes.
Images are manipulated by manipulating symbolic representations
imagery is independent of the sensory & motor systems.
65
behavioural evidence for the functional equivalence theory of mental imagery.
mental scanning- P's memorise a map & then imagine it. they then inspected the map & were asked if a feature is present or absent.
66
cognitive neuroscience evidence for the functional equivalence theory of mental imagery.
Imagery activates areas involved in perception.
Activation depends on tasks- high resolution imagery activates early visual areas, spatial judgements tend to activate more dorsal visual areas, & nonspatial judgements that don't require high resolution comparisons activate ventral areas.
TMS over V1 area disrupts visual imagery.
MS (achromatopsic patient) can't imagine colours.
Some patients w/ left-neglect & hemianopia can't generate images.
67
what is tacit knowledge?
unconscious or can't be articulated
68
what is the problem of tacit knowledge?
knowing something affects how you mentally scan an image
mental scanning task- Ps perform best in map/landmark task when ask 'how they would do this in the real world' & stimulate as many details as possible.
69
what is dissociations in visual imagery?
DF show normal visual imagery abilities - can't discriminate between objects but can perform mental imagery
double dissociation between imagery & visual problems (2 related mental processes that function independently)
Some hemianopes have no problem w/ imagery
JB has deficit of imagery, but not visual perception.
70
What are the functions of mental imagery?
Paivio - imagery has 2 function w/ 2 levels
distinguishes between imagery content (what's being imagined) & imagery function (why it's being imagined)
Levels- specific & general
functions- cognitive & motivational
71
what is cognitive specific imagery?
making spatial judgement & skill rehearsal.
Not as effective as real practice & experts benefit from it more than beginners.
the effect fades over time.
72
what is cognitive general imagery?
developing strategies for play.
v. few controlled strategies looking at mental planning.
case reports of athletes using general imagery.
73
what is motivational specific imagery?
visualising the achievement of a specific goal.
Imagine winning/being praised for performance. - endorsed by athletes
Imagery may be important for goal setting
V. few well-controlled studies on efficacy.
74
what is motivational general imagery?
arousal- visualise the emotional aspects of a situation.
Imagery can increase physiological arousal.
can increase or control arousal.
useful for limiting anxiety
mastery- visualise effective coping strategies.
interventions tend to increase confidence
improves self-efficacy
Imagining feeling confident & in control in endurance task- report higher levels of confidence & efficacy & fewer negative visualisations of performance.
75
what is a problem?
a living organism has a goal, but doesn't know how this goal is to be reached.
3 main characteristics:
goal directed
requires cognitive processes (needs info processing)
lack of relevant knowledge to produce an immediate solution
76
What is a knowledge rich problem?
specific prior knowledge is required
77
What is a knowledge lean problem?
little prior knowledge is required
78
what is reproductive thinking?
rely on experience to solve a problem (e.g. trial & error)
| behaviourists believe all problem solving is reproductive
79
what is productive thinking?
coming up w/ a new response/strategy to solve a problem by mentally stimulating poss solutions.
gestaltists believe some problems can be solved by engaging in mental stimulation. - problem must be restructured so the solution becomes clear.
80
evidence for Gestaltist's view on problem solving.
Kohler (1925)- Sultan ape had to get banana from outside his cage. given 2 bamboo sticks that could join together. gained insight when he realised the sticks could be joined together by exploring the materials.
Birch (1945)- apes raised in captivity can't solve task. could be Sultan had exp trial and error learning in the wild.
81
Do humans exp insight during problem solving?
Maier (1931)
P's had to tie 2 ropes together (solution = pendulum style) using objects in the room. would give hints, e.g. brush past rope & point to plyers
40% solved w/ no hint & 38% w/ hint (sudden moment of insight).
82
What is the candle problem?
Duncker (1945) - if trial & error learning, more exp will increase ability to solve problems.
Ps given matches, 3 boxes of tacks, & 3 candles & asked to fix the candle to the doorframe so it burns in a stable fashion
Ppl don't solve as they can't imagine a new use for the tack box (functional fixity). P's who fail to solve the problem often don't remember the boxes
83
what is the water jar study?
Luchins (1942) - role of exp on problem solving.
1/2 of Ps trained on 3 jar problems & the rest given no training.
given a new problem w/ a 2 jar solution. 95% of those w/ no exp used 2 jars & 64% of trained group failed the problem (contradicts trial & error learning)
84
what is Einstellung?
a mental set - a strategy is used to solve a problem even when it's inappropriate or inefficient.
85
gestalt approach to problem solving - eval
+introduced & investigated insight in problem solving
+emphasised restructuring & representational change (influential)
+exp doesn't always help problem-solving
-focuses on knowledge lean & well specified problems
-insight & restructuring's v vague
-desc what happens during problem solving, but not how it happens.
86
representational change theory for problem solving
integrates gestalt insight theory & info processing approach.
structure of problem determines what knowledge can be retrieved from LTM
blockage occurs when relevant knowledge can't be retrieved from LTM
changing the problem structure means diff knowledge can be retrieved from the LTM - could allow for problem to be solved.
87
ways to change the representation of problems
1. elaboration - add more info
2. constraint relaxation - changing what's permissible to solve the problem.
3. re-encoding - changing how an aspect of the problem's interpreted.
88
evidence for the importance of constraint relaxation in problem solving.
Knoblich et al. - P's move 1 stick to make a roman numeral eq true.
type A - change the value (typical of arithmetic)
type B - change the operators (not allowed in arithmetic) - P's placed an unnecessary constraint on doing this.
solvers of type B tended to fixate on the operators prior to insight occurring.
89
representational change theory for problem solving - eval.
+restructuring appears to help w/ insight problems.
+mechanisms of problem solving are better specified
-doesn't predict what types of restructuring will hemp problem solving
-constraint relaxation may not be required
-may be specific to certain types of problems
90
computational approach to problem solving
general problem solver developed
computer simulation of human problem solving.
solves well defined problems (clear goal).
assumes:
info processing is serial
we have limited STM capacity
relevant info can be retrieved from LTM
Problem space = the representation of a problem.
problem solving = changing initial state to goal state in a series of intermediate stages (each operation changes the problem's state).
91
which operations are selected to transform initial state into goal state in problem solving?
1. means-end analysis- identify diff between current state & goal, form subgoal that decreases diff, perform operation to attain subgoal
2. hill-climbing- change current state to one that most closely resembles the goal (usually you don't know how to solve the problem)
92
computational approach to problem solving - eval.
+works well w/ well-defined, knowledge poor problems
+experimental evidence suggests we use heuristics
-may not operate the same as humans (worse at planning future moves & better at remembering prev states)
-only works w/ well defined problems & most human problems are ill-defined
-can't account for insight
93
what is creativity?
a form of ill-defined problem solving.
| creative ideas are both novel and useful/worthwhile.
94
Wallas' 4 stages of thinking
Based on his introspection & the reports of great thinkers.
1. preparation- systematic, conscious, & fruitless
2. incubation- problem's set aside for other work
3. illumination- solution presents itself (sudden insight)
4. verification- solution's developed & tested
95
evidence for incubation in creativity
P's asked what links wheel, electric, & man. 57% get it correct who have had a break & only 27% who haven't.
incubation could allow for...
the forgetting of unnecessary constraints or decay of mental sets.
unconscious work - representations related to the problem are interacting w/ LTM, but not strong enough to reach awareness.
spreading activation
96
Wallas' 4 stages of thinking - eval.
+ useful framework for desc creativity
+empirical support for the concept of incubation
-desc, not explanatory
-is illumination actually a stage?- may not always be insight
97
what are the 2 types of creative process?
divergent thinking- fluency & novelty, search for new solutions
convergent thinking- search for optimal solution
98
creative cognition model
creative thought has 2 stages; generation & exploration.
generation - developing preinventive forms that don't solve the problem, but may be useful, based on prior knowledge, divergent thinking.
exploration- using preinventive forms to solve the problem, convergent thinking.
99
Study looking at the creative cognition model.
group 1 - choose a category & think of as many forms as many uses poss for the 3 shapes (i.e. imagine as an object)
group 2 - think of as many objects in a category given by experimenter
group 3 - think of diff forms of the 3 shapes & then given category by experimenter.
Ps were most inventive in group 3. - preinventive forms facilitate creative thinking.
100
path-of-least resistance in creativity.
the generation of new ideas is constrained by existing knowledge (norm unconscious).
Ward (1994)- imaginary forms task:
draw creature from a planet nothing like earth.
most structured the animal like an earth animal - bilateral symmetry, sensory receptors, & manipulatory appendages.
101
eval. of creative cognition model
+ empirical evidence that generation & exploration are important
+ deferring eval. of forms increases novelty
- doesn't desc processes of developing preinventive forms
- focus is on originality, not creativity
102
how to increase creativity - brainstorming
```
increase idea production.
2 main principles:
deferment of judgement
quality breeds quantity
4 rules:
1. no criticism
2. free-wheeling welcome
3. quantity encouraged
4. everyone can combine & improve ideas
```
103
brainstorming effectivity evidence
Meadow et al. - think of uses for broom & coat-hanger. ideas rated for uniqueness & usefulness - brainstorm group produced more good ideas than control group.
Brilhart et al. - the most creative ideas were produced 1st & then evaluated (deferment of judgement).
not specific on how to generate ideas
104
how to increase creativity - morphological synthesis
2/3D matrix to represent diff aspects of a problem. New ideas made by combining the 2 points on the matrix & then eval.
gets the most ideas in the fastest time (compared to long checklist of Qs org into categories & short checklist of idea-spurring suggestions.
105
what is a decision?
decision making- choosing between various options
judgement- considering info from multiple sources
decisions are assessed relevant to their consequences & judgements relevant to their accuracy.
106
what are the types of decision?
risky vs riskless
single vs multi-attribute (how many criteria to consider).
one-stage vs multi-stage (consider all things at once or sequentially).
107
Normative approach to deciding between single attribute & risky choices
based on economic & philosophical models.
rational decision maker chooses the option with the greatest outcome.
Assumes:
full knowledge of possible outcomes & options
infinitely sensitive & subtle differences in the value
decision makers are motivated to maximise value
108
expected value theory for decision making
calc expected value of diff decisions & choose the most valuable.
Assumes:
We know the relevant probabilities
we can assign value to the outcome
either decision's better than no decision.
expected value = probability of outcome x value of outcome.
109
Subjective expected utility theory for decision making
if we don't know the probabilities, we use a subjective estimate.
utility= the subjective value we attach to each outcome
expected utility= probability of outcome x utility of outcome
110
is expected utility theory correct?
empirical evidence is inconsistent with this theory.
111
Is subjective expected utility theory for decision making correct?
tested by Tversky & Kahneman
loss aversion - ppl are more sensitive to loss than predicted
risk seeking- ppl take a bigger risk to avoid losing something than predicted
Prospect theory, utility function- the utility of gain is disproportionate to the disutility of loss.
112
biases in decision making
framing effects- ppl are biased towards an option framed towards a gain
omission bias- ppl anticipate regret will be greater for their own actions, as opposed to inactions
113
evaluation of subjective expected utility theory
+delivers most rational decision
| -not accurate (loss aversion, risk seeking, & biases)
114
evaluation of prospect theory for decision making
+accounts for many biases in decision making
- rarely make decisions based only on utility
- diff to evaluate probability of many outcomes
- doesn't reflect social & emotional aspects of decision making
115
Social-functionalist approach to decision making
need to understand the goals of a decision maker to evaluate decisions & understand biases.
expected value approach assumes ppl are intuitive economists; ppl could be intuitive politicians, theologians, prosecutors etc.
116
Tversky et al. (1992) study into decision making
P's imagine they have taken exams and can book a holiday, pay £3 to 'reserve' it if they want to go, or not go on holiday. if they knew they had passed/failed, most would buy the holiday. if they didn't know, most would pay the £3.
ppl are less likely to make a decision when they can't justify it. - e.g. as a reward/ as a pick-me-up.
