Cognition_Stats_Relevant Flashcards
System one is referred to as the —- system
System two is the —— system
Automatic
Deliberate
Weine 2015 studied the effect of causal information on perception of AUD. What 3 variables were measured and showed “reduction”?
Reduces recommending treatment.
Reduces stigma.
Reduces ratings of psychological abnormality
What were David Hume’s three principles of association
Resemblance; Time/place contiguity; Causality
Negative affect and HS Bias (Haslam 1995)
Dysphoria associated with bias regardless of over optimistic or pessimistic
Predicted and recalled grades and completed beck depression inventory
What does the correlation coefficient measure
The strength of the relationship between two continuous variables
What are the two families of effect sizes and what do they mean?
D and r
D-standardized mean differences; differences in observations
R- measurement of strength of association, proportion of variance explained by group membership
What does cohens d describe?
Standardized mean difference of an effect
How do you calculate SD from SEM?
SD = standard error times the square root of N
Who introduced episodic and semantic memory?
Tulving
What does lexicon describe
Mental dictionary.
Part of semantic memory that stores words and their meanings
Basic premise of classical categories and an example
Features are singly necessary (every member must have this feature) and jointly sufficient (everything having that set of features is a member).
Example; a square
Basic premise of prototypical categories and an example
Deal with fuzzy boundaries.
Natural categories of living kinds and artifacts
Are partial eta squared and eta squares the same thing in 1 way ANOVAs?
Yes
What is Markowitz advocating for regarding psychotherapies and what challenges does he outline?
There are no algorithms for switching psychotherapies presently available.
Concerned about non responders and relapsers.
Asks EU to lead the way since NIMH has shifted focus to bio markers
Objectives of experimental psych
Measure an event
Specify and predict conditions under which it will occur
Produce a desired event at will
Pezzo contribution to HS bias
Unexpected events trigger sense making process. Successful = bias will occur. Not successful = no bias
Kolmogorov-Smirnov
Shapiro-Wilk
KS plots
Q-Q plots
All provide information regarding what?
What does a non-significant test tell you?
Normality
Non significant means it doesn’t differ from zero (i.e., it is normal)
What are the views on universality and innateness of language
Chomsky
Pinker
Evans
Chomsky and Pinker yes
Evans no
What was Samuels, 2004 about?
Definition of innateness for cognitive science
What does Levine’s test test?
The null hypothesis that the variances in different groups are equal.
That variances are significantly different and the assumption of homogeneity has been violated
In economics, what is definition of a moral hazard
A situation in which an agent reduces self protection effort after purchasing an insurance contact
In economic sense what is the difference between self protection and self insurance
Reducing probability of risk versus the magnitude of risk
Describe contradiction between estimating rare events and deciding about rare events. Who discusses it?
Barron, 2009: Overestimate rare events in judgment tasks but underestimate rare events in decisions from experience
Spellman and Mandel 1999
Counter factual thinking and mutability as cues to causality. Article gives details about when each functions as a cue vs doesn’t
Labine 1996: Subject and findings
HS bias in Tarasoff cases of negligence
What was Gick and Holyoke about? What were conclusions?
Analogical problem solving. Used example of bridge and tumor analogy. People didn’t use analogy to solve problems unless prompted and even then found it difficult.
Reyna, 2004 discusses what kind of theory for how we make decisions involving risk?
Fuzzy trace theory (dual process). We encode both verbatim and gist representations, but rely on gist whenever possible.
Three timepoints discussed by De Neys at which bias may occur (3 stages of reasoning process)
Storage / Monitoring / Inhibition
Epstein argues we comprehend reality via two systems.
Describe
PARALLEL PROCESSING SYSTEMS
Rational
Experiential (effected by affect)
Mechanism definition
Means by which a cause brings about an effect (Kominsky 2017)
3 hallmarks of intuitive theories
Robust (resistant to change)
Widespread
Coherent
Define Solipsism. Where did u read about it?
The theory that the self is all that can be known to exist. In Baumister commentary to Newell and Shanks article
Prime number definition.
Are 1, and 2 prime numbers?
Divisible by one and itself
1 is not, 2 is
Criteria of rationality (in Hastie book; 4 of them)
(1) Decisions based on future consequences
(2) When consequences are uncertain, they are calculated using basic rules of probability theory
(3) It is an adaptive choice based on value/satisfaction associated with each consequence
(4) Based on current assets
5 elements that should be part of confidence estimate
(1) Reliability of sources, (2) Degree of corroboration of evidence, (3) Number of assumptions made, (4) Quality of logical inference and analytic method used, (5) Remaining intelligence gaps
Joint chiefs, 2013 as refd by Meloy 2015
Hindsight bias and medical decision making is by whom? What does he focus on?
Arkes, 2013. Its contribution to overconfidence and malpractice judgments. Encourages psych to look at medical decision making
Peoples risk judgments and desire for regulation tend to relate to what 5 properties?
(1) Hazards status on attitudes such as voluntariness, dread, knowledge, control
(2) Benefit the hazard provides to society
(3) Number of deaths in average year
(4) Number of deaths in a disastrous year
(5) Seriousness of death from hazard relative to other causes
Psychometric risk studies focus on
Emotional reaction that affects riskiness judgments (and go beyond objective consequence)
Socio-cultural risk studies focus on
Effect of group and culture variables on risk perception (Slovic, 2002)
Axiomatic measurement risk studies focus on
Way in which people subjectively transform objective risk measurements in ways that reflect impact those events have on their life (Slovic, 2002)
4 most common uses of “risk” (Slovic, 2002)
Risk as: (1) Hazard: which risk ranks (2) Probability: risk of acquiring a disease (3) Consequence: risk of letting parking meter expire (4) Potential adversity or threat: how great is risk of riding a motorcycle
Which heuristics are discussed by T and K in “judgements under uncertainty”
Representativeness, Availability, Anchoring and adjustment
Newell and Shanks (2014) view on theories about the explanatory power of unconscious influences in decision making
Evidence for the role of unconscious influences on decision making is inflated and erroneous
In signal detection theory what do d’ and lambda represent?
d’ = how readily the signal can be detected (how far apart the signal and noise distributions are)
Lambda describes the position of the decision criteria (propensity to say yes or no)
In prospect theory, state dependent or reference dependent.
What is core idea of prospect theory? (I.e., describe the function)
Reference dependent. — Utility is in gains/loses (i.e. Changes of wealth) rather than states of wealth
Value function is kinked at reference point and loss averse?
Describe endowment effect. Who described it?
Max amount people pay to acquire a good is often less than the minimal amount they demand to part with it
Thaler (in Kahneman Nobel notes 2003)
In terms of decision making, describe transitivity
If a is preferred to b, and b is preferred to c, a should be preferred to c.
Transitivity indicates the extent to which a decision maker displays a set of well defined coherent preferences (such as the example above)
Covariation model of cause has its roots with who?
David Hume
Origin of mechanism causal view. What was it originally called? General premise?
Kant; the power approach
Causal power = intuitive notion that one thing causes another by virtue of power/energy
Conjunctive cause (Cheng, 1997)
Factors combine in non independent way to produce effect
Hard work + talent = success
Lit cigarette + oxygen = Forrest fire
Kelly’s 3 variables of causation ANOVA
Consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness
Is to much choice a good thing? Who answered and how did they test
Iyengar and Lepper
In a supermarket. Offering people tastes and coupons. Too much choice is demotivating
Define compatibilists and incompatibilists moral views.
Define them, who studied them and their hypothesis.
Nichols and Knobe (2007)
incompatibilist = people are not fully morally responsible if determinism is true
compatibilists = even if determinism is true, moral responsibility is not undermined.
Conc: People have incompatibilist theory of responsibility when more abstract theoretical thinking is required. They have more compatibilist judgments when questions trigger emotions. Answers to questions can vary greatly depending on how the questions are asked.
Cheng definition of generative cause
One whose presence increases probability of effect
Explain the Core knowledge/Cognition debate as described in Carey/Spelke, 1998. Which side do they support?
- Cognition depends on a single, general purpose, theory forming capacity
- Cognition is built on domain specific systems of knowledge.
Carey and Spelke support theory 2
Armstrongs main view of feature theories?
They don’t work. Don’t explain how you can take away features of a Robin and still have bird.
Pachur, Hertwig and Steinmann (2012) pitted what mechanisms against each other to look at how people judge risk. Results?
Affect and availability.
Availability by recall conformed best.
Affect more pronounced in value of statistical life and perceived risk than in frequency judgments.
Found mechanism for both
Bounded rationality
Who? Assertion?
Simon: Cognitive limitations force construction of a simplified model of the world. Satisficing: satisfactory but not necessarily maximal level of achievement
Who studied and termed illusory correlation
Chapman and Chapman 1969
What 2 problems have marred the notion of risk attitudes in the EU sense as a personality trait (in Weber et al 2002)
Different methods for measuring people’s utility have been shown to result in different classifications
Using the same measure, individuals are not consistent across domains (risk seeking vs risk aversion)
What does the Q statistic in meta analysis tell you
What does a significant value tell you
The heterogeneity of effect sizes (likelihood that they could have been samples from the same population)
Significant means the distribution is heterogeneous and average ES should be treated with caution
What is the issue with using weighted values in meta analyses?
It study size is confounded with design characteristics, this approach would amount to weighting studies with certain design features more heavily than others
What did Hood and Farah find regarding the allure of brain science? Their measures vs past measures.
Previous research indicated that brain images increase judgments of an articleʼs scientific reasoning. H&F looked at DVs of interesting, surprising, and worthy of funding. Found little
evidence of neuroimagingʼs seductive allure or of its relation to self-professed dualistic beliefs. Brain images are less powerful than has been argued.
McCabe and Castle (2007) argue that brain images have what type of influence on people?
Argue that brain images are influential because they provide a physical basis for abstract cognitive processes, appealing to people’s affinity for reductionistic explanations of cognitive phenomena.
Definition of meta cognition
Conscious self examination of ones internal mental states
What issue does Keil take with the general over confidence literature?
That it proceeds on the assumption that calibration is independent of the types of representations involved
Discuss findings of Hoyos and Gentner 2017
One process involved in explanation is comparison in adult and children. Focused on children and understanding structural soundness.. When provided align-able parts they produced brace based explanations and transferred the principle to a dissimilar context.
Definition of causal induction from Strickland et al 2017
postulation of causal relationships from observed data
Theory-based causal induction (Griffiths and Tenenbaum 2009) discussed in Strickland et al 2017
At the computational level of analysis, causal induction can be seen as the product of “domain-general statistical inference guided by domain-specific knowledge”
Theory based causal induction (2 facets of theory as discussed by Strickland et al 2017)
1st - tracking of statistical information in a domain-general way and incorporating it in to causal judgments.
2nd - The influence of domain-specific prior knowledge on how statistical info is used to draw causal conclusions
David Marr - 3 levels in which to study the mind
Computational - characterizing the problem faced by the mind and how it can be solved in functional terms
Algorithmic - describe processes the mind executes to produce solutions
Hardware - how those processes are instantiated in the brain
Classical view of concepts holds that all instances of concept share common _______, that are _______ and_______ for defining the concept. Provide an example
Common properties that are necessary and sufficient
E.g., square
Causal mechanism: a system of _____ parts or abstract variables that causally _______ in ________ ways that their operation can be ______ to new situations.
Physical
Interact
Predictable
Generalized
Inductive inference: predicting the ______ from (using) the ________
Unknown, using the known
Simon (1990): perception provides a method whereby ______ stimuli is processed, compared and interpreted to give ______
Sensory
Meaning
