Cognition & Development (paper 3) Flashcards
What are Piaget’s 4 stages of intellectual development? What’s involved in each stage and what supporting research is there for each stage?
Each stage characterised by diff level of reasoning ability, although exact ages vary between children they all develop though the same sequence of stages
SESNORIMOTOR STAGE 0-2years
- baby focuses on physical sensations&basic co-ordination between what see&body movement
- come to understand other people=separate objects&acquire some basic language
- OBJECT PERMANENCE develops after 8months (belief object still exists when out of view)
PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE 2-7years
- cant CONSERVE
- are EGOCENTRIC
- find CLASS INLCUSION difficult (idea classifications have subsets)
CONCRETE OPERATIONS STAGE 7-11years
- from 7 most CONSERVE&perform much better on tasks of EGOCENTRISM&CLASS INCLUSION- still have reasoning problems
FORMAL OPERATIONS STAGE 11+years
- abstract REASONING develops (can think beyond here&now in scientific way)
Define:
- cognitive developemnt
- equilibration
COGNITIVE DEVELOPEMNT (general term for describing development of all mental processes, in particular thinking, reasoning&understanding of world)
EQUILIBRATION (experiencing balance between existing schemas&new experiences, takes place when new infos built into our understanding of topic-either by assimilating it into existing schema/accommodating it by forming new one)
Piaget changed understanding of how thinking develops, before people believed difference in thinking between adults&children was adults new more.
He claimed adults don’t just know more but think in a different way so said cognitive development was a result of 2 influences, what are they?
MATURATION (effect of biological processes of ageing-as children get older, certain mental processes become possible) AKA MATURE
ENVIRONMENT (through interactions with environment, children’s understanding of world becomes more complex) AKA MORE EXPERINECE
He was concerned with what motivates us to learn (disequilibration&equilibration-motivated to lean to gain a full understanding) and how our knowledge of world develops (assimilation&accomodation)
What is schema and how does it rlate to Piagets theory of cognitive developemnt?
Mental framework of beliefs&expectations that influence cognitive processing (world represneted in mind aka knowledge stored)
As children develop, construct more detailed&more complex mental representations of world (stored as knowledge in mind-each schema contains all info of 1 aspect of world)
Believed children born with small no. schemas (just enough to allow to interact with people eg/grasping reflex)
During infancy believed to construct new schemas inc “me-schema” which all child’s knowledge about themselves is stored
With time, develop schema for other people, objects, physical actions&more abstract ideas like morality&justice, occurs as result of interactions with environment
Schema can be behavioural (seen through behaviour eg/grasping) / cognitive (classifying objects eg/some wear glasses some don’t)
Schemas develop through assimilation&accomodation
A key element of Piagets theroy is teh motivation to leaen
What are the driving force for changes/adaptions associated with assimilation and accommodation?
Motivated to learn when existing schemas dont allow us to make sense of somrthing new which leads to unpleasant senstion of disequilibrium (to escape it we have to adpat to n situtaion by exlporing&learning what we need to know (by doing this able to achieve equilibration aka preferred mental state)
Aka principle of equilibration
Human mind strives to maintain balance so if experience cant be assimilated into existing schemas, is a state of imbalance which is experienced as unpleasant state (disequilibrium)&seeks to restore balance through equilibration
Cognitive development is result of adaption between individuals existing schemas&environmental demands for changes
Assimilation, accomodation&equilibration take place throughout life as experiences present us with knowledge but is limitations at what can be learned at diff stages-young child can always accommodate new knowledge as mind simply not mature enough so cant hold onto info
Explain 2 strnegths Piagets theory of cognitive devlopment
+ His theory about learning by forming individual representations of world suggests even children who’ve had similar learning experiences will form quite individual mental representations
Howe et al put children aged 9-12 in 4 groups to study&discuss movement of objects down slope, understanding of topic assessed before&after
Following group discussion, found they’d increased level of knowledge&understanding however hadn’t come to same conclusions/facts, supporting Ps ideas children learn by forming own personal representations
+ Theory successfully applied to education
Prior, classrooms had children sat silently in rows copying from board, now replaced by activity-orientated classrooms which children actively engage in tasks allowing them to construct own understandings
Change in educational practices support theory children learn by actively exploring environment&forming own mental representations of world
Giev a criticism of the sensorimotor stage in Piagets stages of intellectual development
OP may occur at much younger age
Bower&Wishart found infants aged 1-4months continued to reach for object up to 90s after lights turned out so baby may’ve been distracted by cloth in Ps study so didn’t continue to search for object when went out of sight
reduces validity
What is the contribtuion of Vygotskys work to cogntion and developemnt?
How is he similar/differ tio Piaget?
Influenced by Ps work&agreed on may of basics of cog development (eg/child’s reasoning abilities develop in particular sequence&such abilities qualitatively diff at diff ages, with child capable of particular logic at particular ages) BUT sees cog development as social process of learnning fro more experinced others aka experts&saw language as more important part of cog development
Knowledge=1st intERmental (between learner&expert aka social level) then intRAmental (within mind of less expert individual aka individual level)
Proposed children born with elementary mental processes eg/perception&memory, then transforms into higher mental functions eg/use of maths systems&language by influence of culture (allowing us to learn&gain info from culture eg/how to behave)
So elementary mental functions=biological&form of natural development, higher mental functions=exclusively human - the role of culture is to transform elementary to higher mental functions
Explain Vygotsky’s proposal of the role of others and the role of language in cognitive development, how could this differences in abilities
ROLE OF OTHERS
Child learns through problem solving experiences shared with someone else eg/parent/teacher/more competent peers eg/take on their reasoning abilities&ways of learning&solving
- all with greater knowledge are experts&initially assumes most of responsibility for guiding the problem solving activity but gradually responsibility transfers t child aka impart knowledge but child then responsible for effort
ROLE OF LANGUAGE
Believed cultures transmitted by experts using semiotics (signs&symbols developed within particular culture helping to gain understanding&spread culture)
- language=semiotic system of foremost importance but maths symbols=valuable too, so language&maths are means y which cultures transmitted from expert to child
- to begin language takes form of shared dialogues between adult&child (aka pre-intellectual speech) but as child develops mental representation, they begin to communicate with themselves, in this way language (semiotics) enables intellectual development
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN COG ABILITIES
If reasoning abilities=acquired from expert with whom child has contact, makes child acquire reasoning abilities of them=cultural diffs in cognitive development with children picking up mental “tools” most important for life within their physical, social&work environments (anything from hand-eye coordination need to hunt with bow&arrow-evaluation skills needed to succeed subjects)
Explain what Vygotsky meant by Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
V emphasises role of learnign thrugh interction with others
ZPD=identified gap betweeen childs current level of development eg/what can undestand&do alone&potentialy undestand after interaction with more expert others (so learning/cog development doesn’t take place in area of current development (where child already is)/too far ahead of what child can already do independently, so=nothing new learned too far from child’s current knowledge to be useful
Expert assistance allows child to cross the ZPD&undestand as much of subject/situtaion as theyre capable but children stil limited by their development stage to some extent
V believed children develop more advanced understanding of situation thus advanaced reasoing abilities needed to deal with it by leanring from others as opposed to individual exploration of world
SO learn through scaffolding
Give similarities and differences between Piaget and Vygotskys work
CD=cognitive development
S=similiarty x1
D=difference x6
S/D=could be either x3
Can be asked to compare approaches
P=emphasis on nature&nurture:adaptive processes&maturation of brain&body (nature) combine with children responding to demands of enviro in ways that meet own goals (nurture), V=emphasis on nature&nurture:believed heredity (nature)&dialogues with more expert members of society (nurture) contribute jointly to development (S)
P=CD mostly same universally, V=CD differs from culture to culture&1 historical era to next (D)
P=children learn through active self-discovery, V=children learn through instruction&guidance (D)
P=knowledge acquired through direct experiences, V=knowledge acquired through internalisation of experts understanding (D)
P=individual egocentric processes&language become more social, V=social processes/interactions with others become individual psychological processes (D)
P=children learn only when ready, V=CD can be accelerated (D)
P=language develops as result of CD, outward monologues are meaningless&egocentric speech incidental to thought, V=ability to use language is key to CD, outward monologues direct thinking&after become internalised as thought (D)
P=understanding occurs through process of adaption of schemas, V=understanding occur though social experiences (S/D)
P=leaner progresses through stages of intellectual development with age&learn increasingly more complex info&skills as get older, V=children learn increasingly more complex info&skills as get older through performance of more diff tasks with help of more advanced individual (S/D)
P=CD is driven by child’s inbuilt tendency to adapt to new experiences, V=CD is driven by social interaction&experience with a culture (S/D)
Which of Paigets and Vygotskys theroy can be more easily applied within education and why?
Although P revolutionised classroom teaching suggesting learning is done through active exploration of enviro&mental representation as a result, use of experts is probably seen more in classroom
Social interaction in learning through group work, peer tutoring&individual adult assistance from teachers&teaching assistances has been used to scaffold learning through ZPD, idea children can learn moer&faster with appropriate scaffolding has raised expectations of what they should be able to achieve
Give 3 advantages of Vygotskys theory of cog otive devlopemnt
+ Support for ZPD showing gap between level of reasoning child can achieve on own&what they can achieve with help from expert other
Roazzi&Byrant found 4-5year olds performed better on “no. sweets” challenge when working with peers givign better estimate of how many in box as older peers offered prompts pointing yunger cildren in right direction to work out how to arrive at their estimate
Demonstrated children could develop more advanced reasoning skills when working with more expert people
Suggests ZPD is valid concept
+ Support for scaffolding shown in studies adults&older cildren provie support nabling younger to master new tasks
Conner&Cross observed 45 children at intervals between ages of 16&54 months, finding mothers used less direct intervention as children developed
Shows how level of help given by expert partner declines over time as childern gain experience
Study’s particularly important bc it explains what happens during support, doesn’t just show scaffolding occurs in learning
\+ Vygotsky's ideas highly influential in education where social interaction in learning through group work&peer tutoring&teaching assisstants has been used to scaffold children from ZPD Van Keer&Verhaeghe found 7 year olds tutored by 19 year olds, in addition to whole class teaching, progressed further in reading than control who only had class teaching Suggests children can learn more&faster with appropriate scaffolding Thus raised expectations of what children should be able to achieve
What is piagets contribution to cogntionand developemnt?
P concerned with what motivates us to learn&how our knowledge of world develops
Great contriution=relaising children dont simply know less than adults but think differently
Divided childhood into stages, each represents development of new ways of reasoning
Schemas
Motivtaion to learn (equilibirum&disequilibrium)
How learning takes place (assimilation&accomodation)
AS 1 OF 4 of piagets stages explain sensoritmotor
SESNORIMOTOR STAGE 0-2years
- baby focuses on physical sensations&basic co-ordination between what see&body movement
- come to understand other people=separate objects&acquire some basic language
- OBJECT PERMANENCE develops after 8months (belief object still exists when out of view)
_Hid object under cloth, observed if child continued to reach for it, before 8 months, immediately switched attention away, but after 8 continued to reach=understood still existed
AS 1 OF 4 of piagets stages explain pre operational
PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE 2-7years
Mobile&can use language but lacks reasoning ability still so displays ome characteristic errors in reasoning
- cant CONSERVE (ability to realise quantity remains same even when appearance of object changes)
_Showed 2 rows of counters, asked to confirm were same, then spaced out 1 row&asked if still same/1 row had more than other=often said no longer same showing cant conserve, also conducted with playdough testing mass&liquid testing volume&results same) - are EGOCENTRIC (tendency to only see world from own pov, applies to physical objects&arguments in which child only appreciates own perspective
_P&Inhelder showed model of 3 mountains&placed doll at diff viewing angel to child, then asked to identify dolls’ view from set of pictures=not able to do)
- find CLASS INLCUSION difficult (begin to understand ideas fall into categories eg/pugs&retrievers=dogs but most under 7 struggle more with class inclusion=idea classificiation/categories have subsets) _Showed 7-8years pictures of 5 dogs&2cats&asked whether more dogs/animals in picture=tended to say were more dogs suggesting couldn't simultaneously see dog as member of dog class&animal class
AS 1 OF 4 of piagets stages explain concrete operations
CONCRETE OPERATIONS STAGE 7-11years
- from 7 most CONSERVE&perform much better on tasks of EGOCENTRISM&CLASS INCLUSION- still have reasoning problems (only able to reason on physical operations in presence), struggle with reasoning on abstract ideas&imagine objects/situations cant see
_Smith et al found children younger struggled with scientific reasoning tasks eg/working out how many heads yellow cat has if all have 2 heads, answered with 1 but answer=2 so too distracted y content to think in logical way (same as pre operational)
(counters playdough liquid, 3 mountains, dogs cats animals)
AS 1 OF 4 of piagets stages explain formal operations
FORMAL OPERATIONS STAGE 11+years
- abstract REASONING develops (can think beyond here&now in scientific way)
- can focus on arguement¬ be distracted by its content, this formal reasoning tested using syllogisms (can reason in logical way despite being strange)
_Formal reasoning tested using syllogisms eg/all yellow ctas have 2 heads, i have yellow cta called charlie how mnay heads does he have? correct=2 (younger children dstracted by content&nswered cats dont have 2 heads-P belieed once chidlren could reason formally, theyre capable of scientific reasoning&appreciate abstract ideas
