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Psychology P3 > Cognition And Development > Flashcards

Cognition And Development Flashcards

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1
Q

Outline Piaget

A
  • cognition develops in stages
  • born with basic abilities
  • more complex abilities in later stages

cognition develops through active discovery
develop schema to understand world

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2
Q

Piagets stages of development

A

Sensorimotor stage 0-2yrs
- knowledge to senses
- develop object permanence

Preoperational stage 2-7yrs
- some language abilities
- can’t conserve
- egocentric

Concrete operations stage 7-11yrs
- can conserve
- not egocentric
- can understand class inclusion
- can’t use abrstract reasoning in head

Formal operations stage 11+yrs
- can use abstract reasoning
- can deal with hypothetical situations

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3
Q

research support for Piagets stages

A

Piaget - conservation
- made line of counters longer
- concrete stages could conserve
- POs couldn’t

Piaget and Szeminksa - class inclusion
- 20 wooden beads, white and brown
- asked if more brown bead than wooden
- concrete - more likely correct

Piaget and Inhelder - egocentrism
- 3 mountains task, doll put around mountains
- children asked to select photo of dolls view, chose their own

Piaget - object permanence 8 months

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4
Q

research against Piagets stages

A

McGarrigle and Donaldson - conservation
- puppet knocked counters to look longer
- POs children understood

Siegler and Svetina - cass inclusion
- 5 year olds understood with practice

Hughes - egocentrism
- 3.5 year olds could decentre
- put doll where policeman couldn’t see

Baillargeon - object permanence 3 months

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5
Q

what is object permenance?

A

ability to understand that objects continue to exist even though they are out of sight

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6
Q

object permanence according to Piaget

A

develops at 8 months - sensorimotor

covered toys infant of children
- when objects removed before 8 months - babies stopped looking
- but after 8m they kept looking
as they knew it was still there

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7
Q

Conservation

A

Understand that a set quantity stays the same even if it looks different

Concrete operations - can conserve
Preoperational - can’t

2 rows of 5 counters - one row spaced out
Concrete - knew number of counters stayed same
Preoperational - spaced out row had more

But… McGarrigle and Donaldson
Puppet knocked counters to look longer, even children in Preoperational knew it was the same number - suggests they do understand conservation

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8
Q

Egocentrism

A

Ability to see from other people’s perspectives

Concrete operations stage - not egocentric
Preoperational - egocentric

Piaget and Inhelder
- 3 mountains task
- doll places around mountains and children shown photos
- chose photo from their own perspective not dolls

but… Hughes

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9
Q

Class inclusion

A

Understand that objects can belong in multiple groups at once

Concrete - do understand
Preoperational - don’t

Piaget and Szeminksa
- 20 beads, some white some brown
- asked if there were more brown beads than wooden beads
Children in concrete operations more likely to get it right - understand class inclusion
Compared preoperational stage

but Sieger and Svetina

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10
Q

What drives cognitive development (Piaget)

A

Equilibration
- done by accommodation and assimilation

New experiences assimilated or accommodated

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11
Q

what is equilibration?

A

process of restoring mental equilibrium (balance)

happens through accommodation and assimilation

follows state of cognitive imbalance (disequilibrium)
where new information doesn’t match existing schema

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12
Q

Accommodation

A

changing existing schema to take account of new information

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13
Q

Assimilation

A

Adding new information to existing schema

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14
Q

Strengths of Piagets theory

A

+ supporting evidence
Piaget and Inhelder, 3 mountains task
Piaget and Szeminksa, class inclusion
Piaget and conservation, counters

+ real world application, education
Shows children may not be ready to learn at certain ages, eg preoperational
Plowden Report - Piagets findings changed primary education

+ cross cultural similarity, develop the same

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15
Q

Weaknesses of Piagets theory

A
  • underestimated abilities - could do tasks earlier
    McGarrigle and Donaldson, conservation at POs
    Siegler and Svetina, class inclusion with practise at 5
  • some tasks may have just been to difficult
    Hughes- found children as young as 3.5 could decentre with easier task
    Asked to put doll where policeman couldn’t see
  • lacks objectivity
    used observations and interviews, open to subjective interpretation
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16
Q

Outline Vygotsky

A

Suggests we develop in stages (like Piaget)
But social interaction and learning from others is important in development
- focus on interaction and culture to determine development

There are cultural differences in development
As it’s due to social interaction they reflect abilities of adults
develops tools of culture

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17
Q

Vygotsky’s stages

A

vague syncretic - trial and error, no understanding of underlying concepts
complex - uses of strategies but not successful
potential concept - successful strategies used by only one at a time
mature concept - lots of strategies at same time, thinking mature and developed

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18
Q

importance of language in Vygotskys theory

A

enables shift form elementary mental functions to higher mental functions

external monologue (talking out loud)
becomes inner speech (self- talk becomes internalised)

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19
Q

Zone of proximal development

A

Difference between child’s abilities on their own and abilities with the help of a more knowledgeable other
(current vs potential)

Interaction important in development

20
Q

Scaffolding

A

framework provided by more knowledgable other to allow learning

progressive - less help with age

21
Q

Strengths of Vygotsky

A

+ research support for scaffolding - Conner and Cross
longitudinal study, 16-54 months, found mothers help less as children age

+ real world application to education
use of teaching assistants and peer tutoring, more interaction needed
Van Keer and Verhage

+ research support for zone of proximal development
amount mothers helped with jigsaw depended on zone of proximal development, helped less when easier (within zone)
McNaughton and Leighland

22
Q

Weaknesses of Vygotsky

A
  • individual differences
    assumes we all develop and learn the same, personality may influence development
    incomplete
  • overemphasis on social and cultural factors in development, ignore biological factors
  • scaffolding difficult to operationalise and measure, differs between children, not reliable
23
Q

Outline Baillargeon

A

used violation of expectation research to study object permanence

infants born with basic expectations about objects
these innate abilities develop with interaction, can eventually predict outcomes

suggested it develops earlier than Piaget said, in his studies they lacked motor skills instead

24
Q

object permanence according to Baillargeon

A

develops at 2/3 months (younger than Piaget)
suggests they lack motor skills not cognitive ability

shown through VOE research
Baillargeon and Graber (rabbits)

25
Q

violation of expectation research

A
  • VOE = that is expected doesn’t happen
  • based on idea that infants will look at new situations longer (unexpected event)
  • shown 2 stimuli, possible and impossible events
26
Q

Baillargeon and Graber

A
  • lab experiment
  • repeated measures
  • 5-6 month olds

shown 2 events:
- possible - tall and short rabbits move behind screen, tall rabbit seen but short one not
- impossible - tall rabbit not seen

findings-
babies looked at impossible 8 seconds longer
shows they have object permanence as they know they should be able to see the rabbit

27
Q

evaluation of Baillargeon and Graber

A

+ lab experiment - good variable control
+ repeat in many other ways - similar results
+ supports Baillargeon

  • relies on interpretation - can’t communicate
  • lacks validity, measuring interest not understanding
  • not all research has same findings - Rivera et al, no difference
28
Q

strengths of Baillargeon

A

+ good research support - Baillargeon and Graber
+ lab experiment, control of variables
+ repeated to get similar results
+ shows babies have understanding of the physical world

29
Q

weaknesses of Baillargeon

A
  • relies on interpretation, babies can’t communicate
  • may jut show babies are more interested, not that they understand or have object permenance
  • not all research gets similar results
    Rivera et al, no difference in expected and unexpected
30
Q

evaluate object permanence research (Piaget and Baillargeon)

A

+ Baillargeon’s methods more sophisticated, times response
compared to Piaget

  • relies on inference, infants cant communicate
    measuring looking and surprise, very subjective, less scientific
  • both found different ages, not reliable
31
Q

what is social cognition?

A

understanding yourself and others
being able to see things from other peoples perspectives

  • Selman
  • Theory of mind
  • mirror neurones
32
Q

Selman

A
  • studies social perspective taking
  • understanding that others perspective can differ from your own
  • ability to take others perspectives develops through 5 stages

told children story about girl who could rescue a cat from a tree but promised not to climb trees
asked children how each character would feel

33
Q

stages of perspective taking

A

socially egocentric - 3-6 years
can separate self and others but
cannot distinguish own emotions from others

social informational stage - 6-8 years
can understand others have different perspectives but can only focus on one at a time, theirs more important

self reflective role taking - 8-10 years
can seperate perspectives, still only one at a time

mutual role taking - 10-12 years
can consider others perspectives, more than one at once and of a third person

social and conventional role taking 12+
understand situations from a variety perspectives
also understand that these may be influenced by social and cultural values

34
Q

strengths of Selman

A

+ research support
Selman - cross sectional study
assessed children at different ages on perspective taking abilities, found positive correlations between age and abilities

Gurucharri and Selman - longitudinal study
followed children over time, positive correlation

+ real world application
class discussions in schools to help develop perspective taking skills

35
Q

weaknesses of Selman

A
  • correlation doesn’t mean causation
    age may not influence abilities, may be another factor
  • sole focus on understanding, neglects empathy and emotion, also important in social cognition
  • hard to operationalise and measure, so lacks reliability
36
Q

what is Theory of Mind?

A

understanding that other people have minds with knowledge, feelings and beliefs

allows us to explain and predict other peoples behaviour (help with perspective taking)

issues with ToM is linked to social and communication issues in autism

37
Q

Outline the Sally-Anne study (Baron-Cohen)

A
  • children told story involving dolls
    Sally puts her marble in her basket, Sally leaves
    Anne moves the marble to her box, Sally returns
  • children asked where Sally will look for the marble

children who have ToM would say she would look in the basket (understand Sallys false belief)
those without would say box (don’t understand Sally has different knowledge to them)

ToM develops around 4 (3yo struggled)

38
Q

Sally Anne study/ Baron Cohen - link to autism

A

non autistic children - 80% correct
autistic children - 20%

suggests autistic children have underdeveloped ToM
mindblindness
can’t understand other peoples beliefs or perspectives

39
Q

evaluation of ToM to explain autism

A

+ Sally Anne study
autistic children did worse (20% compared to 80)

  • cant explain talents eg islets of ability
  • some autistic people can take others perspectives, not complete
40
Q

evaluation of Sally Anne

A

+ Leslie and Frith, similar study with humans, similar results
+ real world application, helps understand autism

  • false belief tasks not valid (measuring what they intend to) test of memory?
  • correlation doesn’t mean causation (to explain autism)
  • only partial explanation of autism, islets of ability
41
Q

evaluation of ToM

A

+ support from Baron Cohen
+ could help explain autism

  • flawed research, false belief taks not valid
  • not complete explanation for autism (islets of ability?) and just correlation?
  • other explanations (evidence for mirror neurones)
42
Q

what are mirror neurons?

A
  • special brain cells
  • fire when you do an action and when observing someone else doing an action
    (Respond to motor activity of others and ourselves)

allows us to understand and predict others behaviours
- Gallesse and Goldman - allow us to respond to intentions not just actions
Help with taking perspectives and develop theory of mind

Ramachandran - key in social evolution

43
Q

outline Di Pellegrino

A

electrodes inserted into monkeys brains
activity recorded as monkeys reached for food

found same neuron fired when watching someone else reach for the food

Evidence they exist

44
Q

Strengths of the mirror neuron system

A

+ research support, Haker et al
fMRIs show areas of brain concentrated with mirror neurones (Broadmans) active during tasks of social cognition (eg yawning) show they have a role in social cognition

+ real world application, may explain autism
Hadjikhani, lower activity in areas with mirror neurons in autistic people

45
Q

Weaknesses of mirror neurones

A
  • however hard to study individual cells in humans, unethical to insert electrodes
    questions as to existance and function
  • Hicock
  • original study unethical and on monkeys, can’t generalise
  • biological determinism - complex behaviour explained through neuron activity

Psychology P3 (4 decks)

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