Cognition 2017 Flashcards
1
Q
What are 3 systems of memory?
A
- sensory memory
- short term memory
- Long term memory
2
Q
Who suggested the Information Processing Model ?
A
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)
3
Q
What do Atkinson and Shiffrin suggest about IPM?
A
- that memory is made up of a series of stores
- Explains how processes such as sensation, perception, attention and memory are controlled
4
Q
4 stores of memory
A
- mental representation
- encoding
- storage
- retrieval
5
Q
Function of sensory memory
A
stores all incoming sensory information
6
Q
Duration of sensory memory
A
Memory retained for a short period of time (5 seconds)
iconic
echoic
7
Q
what is iconic
A
temporarily stores information of visual nature (eyes)
8
Q
what is echoic
A
temporarily stores information for auditory nature
9
Q
function of STM
A
working memory (thoughts, words and images are available for decision making and problem solving)
10
Q
Duration of STM
A
stores for around 30 seconds
11
Q
Capacity of STM
A
(George Miller) (7+ - 2) (5 - 9)
12
Q
What does STM allow us to do?
A
Rehearsing information allows us to transfer material to LTM
13
Q
3 types of STM
A
maintenance
elaborative rehearsal
chunking
14
Q
What is maintenance rehearsal
A
Meaningless rote repetition of material to be remembered (least effective)
15
Q
what is elaborative rehearsal
A
applying meaning to new words in order to retain in memory (most effective)
16
Q
what is chunking
A
Material is combined into large, meaningful groups
17
Q
Who came up with working memory model?
A
Baddley & Hitch 1914
18
Q
3 sections to working memory model
A
- central executive
- visual spatial sketchpad
- phonological loop
19
Q
What is central executive
A
- boss of working memory
- controls & coordinates other components
- controls attention, sending incoming information to the relevant comment and briefly stores all sensory information.
20
Q
What is visual spatial sketchpad
A
Stores and manipulates information of a visual and spatial nature; a slave system to the central executive
21
Q
what is phonological loop
A
The other slave system; also known was the rehearsal loop; stores and manipulates information of an auditory nature
22
Q
what was the fourth section Baddley added?
A
episodic buffer
23
Q
What is an episodic buffer
A
- Episodic buffer links information across all domains to form integrated units of visual, spatial and verbal information with time
- Provides link to LTM
24
Q
What is LTM
A
- A relatively permanent storage facility for an intimate amount to information
Procedural
Declarative
25
What is the capacity of LTM
Capacity is unknown; thought to be unlimited
26
Procedural memory ?
(IMPLICIT - not conscious) —> the ‘how to’ of memory
27
Declarative memory ?
(EXPLICIT - requires conscious effort) —> the ‘what’ of memory
episodic
semantic
28
An example of Procedural memory?
How to type your name or ride a bike
29
Episodic ?
memory of your own set of auto biological events/personal experience
30
semantic ?
factual knowledge possessed about the outside world; and encyclopaedia of memory
31
What is recall?
involves being able to access the information without being cued
e.g fill in the blanks
32
What is recognition?
involves identifying information after experiencing it again
e.g multi choice
33
What is re-learning
- involves relearning information that have been previously learned
- often makes it easier to retrieve information in the future and help improve strength of memory
e. g Bike track analogy
34
Define forgetting
- Forgetting is defined as a failure to access information that had previously been stored in memory
- Forgetting is caused by a range of difference deficiencies in encoding, storage and retrieval
35
5 types of forgetting
- retrieval failure theory
- interference theory
- Motivated forgetting
- Decay theory
- Organic
36
Retrieval failure theory ?
- Forgetting occurs because of a failure to use the right, correct or approbate cues at a certain time
- RFT—> cue dependent forgetting
- his info is actually in memory it just cant be accessed
- Tip-of-the-tongue phenomena (TOT)
37
interference theory ?
- When two pieces of info are similar, it leads to a situation called ‘interferences’ causing us to forget the difference
-Forgetting in long term memory arises because old or new information produces confusion or competition and as a consequences blocks effective retrieval
Proactive interfere
retroactive inference
38
Proactive interference
interference of old memories on the retrieval of new memory
39
retroactive interference
new information interferes the ability to remember old information
40
motivated forgetting ?
- There is a strong desire to forget certain things because the memory is either to traumatic, disturbing, anxiety provoking or upsetting
- Self defensive device
repression
suppression
41
What is repression? R/U
Keeping distressing thoughts buried in the unconscious and from entering ones conscious
42
what is suppression ? S/C
A deliberate effort to keep distressing thoughts out of conscious awareness
43
Decay theory
Forgetting occurs because the memory trace (initially formed at learning) tends to gradually fade or decay, overtime
Contributes to the loser of info in sensory memory and STM via displacement
44
organic
Forgetting (amnesia or memory loss) occurs due to some brain damage
45
What is biological influences
- learning is relatively permanent change, often a behaviour, that occurs as a result of an experience
- Early approaches explore learning as a result of humans responding to stimuli in an environment
- Theses theories are known as ‘stimulus-response’ theories
- More recent approaches are interested in describing learned as humans make sense of the world and problem solve e.g observational learning
46
Who studied classical conditioning
Ivan Pavlov
47
key terms of classical conditioning
condition
stimulus
response
48
What is the condition
the association made by the learner between a stimulus and a response
49
What is the stimulus
any variable present in the environment that may trigger a response
50
what is the response
an action or behaviour that is exhibited
51
What is classical conditioning
- association forming between 2 stimulus; one which is not normally associated with the response; such that the appearance of that stimuli alone results in the repossess of the behaviour
52
5 types of responses
- neutral stimulus
- unconditioned stimulus
- conditioned stimulus
- unconditioned response
- conditioned response
53
neutral stimulus ?
any stimulus that produces now relevant response prior to classical conditioning process
54
unconditioned stimulus ?
any stimulus that consistently leads to a reflexive response
55
conditioned stimulus ?
a previously neutral response that has become associated with a stimulus by which it was not previously raised by the classical conditioning process
56
unconditioned response ?
an unlearned, reflexive and involuntary response to a stimulus
57
conditioned response ?
a reflexive and involuntary repossess that has become associated with a stimulus by which it was not previously caused during classical conditioning
58
Who studied operant conditioning ?
Skinner
59
What is operant conditioning?
- Operant condition deals with operant international actions that have an effect on the surroundings
- Set out to identity the process which made certain operant behaviours more or less likely to occur
60
4 types of operant conditioning
- reinforcement theory
- punishment theory
- Negative reinforcement
- Punishment
61
What is reinforcement theory?
to exchange behaviour
- neutral operants
- reinforces
- punishes
62
What is neutral operants
responses from the environment that neither increases nor decreases the probability of a behaviour being repeated
63
Reinforces?
responses from the environment that increase the probability of behaviour being repeated
64
Punishes?
responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated, punishment weakens behaviours
65
What is positive reinforcement
straightens a behaviour by providing a consequence an individual finds rewarding
e.g $15 for homework
66
What is negative reinforcement
- the removal of an unpleasant reinforcement can also straighten behaviour
- removal of an adverse stimulus which is ‘rewarding’
- straightens behaviour because it stops or removes an unpleasant experience
67
What is punishment ?
- the opposite of reinforcement since it is designed to weaken or eliminate a response rather than increase it.
- directly applying an unpleasant stimulus like a shock after a response or by removing a potentially rewarding stimulus
68
2 types of punishment
positive
| negative
69
Positive punishment
the addition of an adverse consequence
| e.g house bound bracelet
70
Negative punishment
the subtraction of pleasant stimulus
| e.g permission to use Facebook
71
What is the skinner box used for
use to study conditioning in animals
72
What is observational learning
- Otherwise known as modelling/imitation
- Not connected with internal mental processes, observable behaviours are focussed
- The environment causes behaviours, and learning and behaviours can change the environment. This is known as reciprocal determinism
73
Who developed observational learning
Albert Bandura
74
Cognitive theory ?
- social learning Reciprocal determinism
75
What factors are involved in observational learning ?
| ARRM
A - attention
R - retention
R - reproduction
M- motivation
76
What is attention
observers cannot learn unless they pay attention to whats happening around them
77
What is retention
observers must be able to remember what was happening around that at the time of observation
78
What is reproduction
observers must be capable (physically and psychological)
79
What is motivation
observers will only perform wha they have observes if they have enough motivation or reason to do so. The presence of the reinforcement can be important aspect of motivation
80
What is Bandura's social learning experiment ?
Interested how people learn social behaviour
modelling occurs when one observes the behaviour and consequences of another to influence their won thoughts, actions and feelings
learning is a function of observing, retains and replicating behaviour observed in others
it can take place at any time/stage however it is most important during childhood
81
Method of Bodo doll experiment ?
- 36 boys and 36 girls from the Stanford university nursery school and were of the age between 3-6
- The average age of the group was 4 .
- The control groups consisted of 24 children. the first experimental group comprised of 24 children exposed to aggressive behaviour, whilst the second group of 24 was exposed to non aggressive behaviour (model). The two groups were then divided on their sex and then exposed to same-sex and opposite models.
82
Key findings of bodo doll experiment ?
Children who observed the aggressive model made far more imitative aggressive responses than those who were in the non-aggressive or control groups.
- similar results found with verbal aggression
- boys exhibited more aggression when exposed to aggressive male models than when exposed to aggressive female models
- girls had similar results and were overall less aggressive than boys
83
What is behaviour modification
- This is the application of classical and operational conditioning techniques
- it can be used to treat psychological problems such as fears or phobias
84
4 Techniques of behaviour modification
Token economics
Systematic desensitisation
Cognitive behaviour theory
Positive and negative reinforcement
85
What is token economics ?
refers to artificial systems of reward and reinforcement where symbolic markers such as coloured counters or fake money are used to reward behaviouR
Criticism = can the improved behaviour be maintained once the token economy had been removed
86
What is Systematic Desensitisation ?
- This is the application of classical conditioning to fears and phobias in humans
the fear response is replaced with a more relaxed response in a step-by-step process
graded exposure = least threatening to the most threatening situation is presented
Relaxation techniques = used at each step to reduce the fear the person experiences
87
What is Cognitive behaviour theory ?
The type of psychotherapy that helps people to change unhelpful or unhealthy thinking, habits, feelings and behaviours
may be used to treat problems including anxiety, depression or low self-esteem
88
What Is Positive and negative reinforcement
Positive and Negative Reinforcement
Positive Reinforcement = behaviour increases when it is followed by a positive reward
Negative Reinforcement = behaviour increases when it is followed by the removal of an unpleasant reward
Positive Punishment = behaviour decreases if an aversive consequence is applied after the behaviour
Negative Punishment = behaviour decreases if an pleasant stimulus is removed after the unwanted behaviour
89
What is socialisation ?
The process by which we learn to become members of society, both by internalising the norms and values of society, and also learning to perform our social roles (scott and marshall)
90
What is gender
often used to refer to the social, cultural and psychological qualities of being male and female
masculinity = strong and protective; assertive; a bread winner; intellectually rational
Femininity = soft and understanding; caring; nurturing and supportive; forgiving and patient
91
2 theorists for learning to communicate
Chomsky (1968)
| Bruner (1983)
92
What did Chomsky study
language acquisition device (LAD)
= universal rules that could distinguish grammatical from ungrammatical sentences
= people are genetically predisposed to learn this universal grammar, so children learned the language naturally
= pays little attention to the social environment
93
What did Bruner study
longitudinal study of two boys, 3 months and 24 months
= describes the process through which language was learned - Language acquisition support system (LASS)
= parents guide and support children's emerging language through interactions
= LASS requires LAD and LAD requires LASS
94
What does LAD stand for
language acquisition device
95
What does LASS stand for
language acquisition support system
96
What is communication styles
Examines cultural and social aspects of language
Learning to speak depends on culture, socio-economic background and gender
Style involves accents, vocab, grammar and the type of ideas we try to express
forms part of our identity
97
What did bernstein study
Social Background and Language Style
98
Social Background and Language Style ?
```
Interested in the relationship between language style and social class
working class = restricted code
middle class= elaborative code
```
99
What is the difference between resticeted and elaborative code
Short and simple sentences vs. Complex and precise
Few descirptive words vs. descriptive words
Commands are ralrey used vs. Explanantions
Non abstract vs. abstract ideas
100
What did bernstein study
Children in working class families had a language deficit due to only using the inferior restricted code
Limited education benefits
his theory had a major influence over children in the US in the 60s and 70s, which projects being implemented to help these children
101
What did labov believe
ideas based on his work with black children from NY who spoke black english vernacular (BEV)
he suggested that BEV was just as complex and rule governed as standard english, and they shouldn't be considered deficit, just different
several Europeans languages use double negatives
—> he doesn't know nothing
—> he don't know anything
102
What is gender differences
A breakdown in communication occurs according to Deborah Tannen (1990) due to diffetn communication styles
Men - report
Women - rapport
103
What is report talk
talking is used to gain and maintain attention, negotiate and maintain status (public speaking)
104
What is rapport talk
based on establishing relationships, negotiating differences and developing understanding
also use more confirmatory tones (mmm) which indicates listening, also use indirect questions “would you mind shutting the door
105
What is persuassive commmunication
persuasion involves trying to change beliefs, feelings and behaviours of another
106
3 types of perussasive communicatio
1. source of the message
2. nature of communiation
3. charcateristics of audeince
