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Cog workbook > Cog workbook > Flashcards

Cog workbook Flashcards

1
Q

who proposed the multi-store model of memory?

A

Atkinson and Shiffrin 1968

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2
Q

What is the primacy effect

A

The first few words are likely to be remembered

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3
Q

Who developed the filter theory of attention and when?

A

Broadbent 1958

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4
Q

What is the capacity of STM?

A

7 + - 2

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5
Q

According to the Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) multi-store memory model, how are verbal and visual information processed?

A

Iconic memory

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6
Q

What is the name of the effect where naming of the colours in which words are printed is slower when the words are conflicting colour words?

A

Stroop effect

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7
Q

Controlled attentional processes are more effortful than ____________ attentional processes.

A

automatic

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8
Q

What component of sensory memory stores auditory information?

A

Echoic memory

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8
Q

eWhat kind of attention is driven by our goals and intentions?

A

controlled

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9
Q

Name one benefit of automatic attention.

A

multi-tasking and reduces demands on cognitive resources and faster

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10
Q

Give an example of a stimulus that might be stored in iconic memory?

A

visual images

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10
Q

According to the Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) multi-store memory model, how
is information transferred from STM to LTM?

A

rehearsal

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11
Q

What is the recency effect?

A

the last few words are more likely to be remembered

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12
Q

Who developed the attenuation theory of attention and when?

A

Treisman 1964

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13
Q

What do you mean by ‘chunking’?

A

organising items into familiar manageable units

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14
Q

Name a crucial difference between automatic and controlled attentional processes?

A

controlled is active process and are internal automatic are passive and are internal

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15
Q

How does the modal/multi-store model of memory explain the primacy effect?

A

Because you have had time to rehearse it it has had time to move from the STM to the LTM

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16
Q

How does the modal model of memory explain poor recall for items presented
in the middle of a list?

A

The information has left the short term memory but not been rehearsed enough to get to the long term memory

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17
Q

How does the modal model of memory explain the recency effect?

A

last few words are more likely to be remembered

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18
Q

Describe Cherry’s dichotic listening task

A

people were able to shadow information from attended ear but recalled little from the unattended ear

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19
Q

Who proposed the Working Memory Model and when?

A

Baddeley and Hitch 1974

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20
Q

According to the Working Memory Model, what does the central executive do?

A

directs the information to the relevant systems

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21
Q

How does the decay theory explain forgetting?

A

memories fade away with the passage of time and when they are not used they lose their strength over time

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22
Q

According to the working memory model, what will happen if 2 tasks use the same component?

A

Poor performance as they interfered with each other

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23
Q

What does repression involve?

A

involves the motivated (intentional) forgetting of painful or unpleasant memories.

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24
Q

Kate learns 2 sets of word lists related to the same category cue. On a later recall test, her recall performance for words on the first list suffers. What is the most likely cause of forgetting?

A

retroactive interference

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25
Q

According to the working memory model, what will happen if 2 tasks use different components?

A

both tasks should be performed as well together as separately

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26
Q

Describe where the 3 processes of memory are located in terms of the multi-store model of
memory

A

sensory memory - attention - stm - rehearsal - ltm

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27
Q

According to the cue-dependent theory of forgetting, what are the different types of cues used to encode and retrieve memories?

A

context and state

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28
Q

According to the working memory model, where are images and directions in space processed?

A

visuo spatial sketchpad

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29
Q

What did Ebbinghaus find when he tested his own memory by learning lists of nonsense syllables?

A

50% of memory is lost in the first hour

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30
Q

What does the weapon’s effect refer to?

A

heightened attention and recall of a weapon and the reduced
attention and recall of other stimuli

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31
Q

What type of memory usually stays intact in amnesic patients?

A

implicit

32
Q

What does retroactive interference refer to?

A

Forget something old due to interference from new learning

33
Q

What does the encoding specificity principle refer to?

A

The greater the similarity between the encoding event and the retrieval event, the greater the likelihood of recalling the original memory

34
Q

Chris used to ice skate as a teenager but didn’t skate for over 10 years. When she attempted to ice skate last Christmas she had not forgotten how to skate. What type of memory is this an example of?

A

procedural

35
Q

What does proactive interference refer to?

A

Cannot learn something new due to interference from previous learning

36
Q

Which theory of forgetting does the encoding specificity principle relate to?

A

cue / context dependent forgetting

37
Q

According to the working memory model, what kind of information is stored in the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad?

A

visual and spatial information = visuospatial sketchpad then verbal information in the phonological loop

38
Q

What is implicit or non-declarative memory?

A

memory that dosen’t need conscious recall

39
Q

what are well-defined problems ?

A

any problem in which the initial state or starting position, all the allowable operations, and the goal state are clearly specified, and a unique solution can be shown to exist.

40
Q

what did Newell and Simon create in 1972

A

They developed a computer simulation (General Problem Solver) and then compared the results of the simulation with human behaviour in a given problem solving task

41
Q

What does functional fixedness mean

A

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions

42
Q

what kind of problem is a maze

A

Well defined

43
Q

Explain the nature of heuristics in the information approach to problem solving

A

cognitively undemanding and often produce approximately accurate answers

44
Q

what does the means-end analysis heuristic involve

A

Reduce the difference between the initial and goal states by reaching sub-goals (intermediate goals)

45
Q

when is positive transfer of learning the greatest

A

When 2 problems are similar, the contexts are similar and the time interval is short

46
Q

explain the representational change theory approach to problem-solving / constraint relaxation - use an example

A

Focus is on immediate application of knowledge and skills from one situation to a similar one

47
Q

explain the information processing approach to problem-solving using an example

A
  1. Information processing is serial (one at a time)
  2. People possess limited STM
  3. They can retrieve relevant information from LTM

Tower of Hanoi

48
Q

what problem highlights functional fixedness

A

water jug problem

49
Q

What does the hill climbing heuristic involve?

A

Changing the present state within the problem into one closer to the goal.

50
Q

Explain the analogical approach to problem solving using two example problems

A

To use a previous problem to solve the current one, we must detect similarities between them. E.g. Cars on a roundabout and Russian matchmaker

51
Q

How does the working backwards heuristic work?

A

Start at the goal state and work backwards via means-ends analysis

52
Q

What must happen for successful analogical problem solving to occur?

A
  1. Notice the analogy
  2. Map between the source and the target
  3. Apply the solution of one to the other
53
Q

How can insight be facilitated?

A

hints and incubation ( Sleep)

54
Q

What approach did Thorndike’s cats use to escape from the puzzle box?

A

trial and error

55
Q

What does mental set/ Einstellung refer to?

A

the tendency to use a familiar strategy even where there is a simpler alternative or the problem cannot be solved!

56
Q

Describe a problem used to test mental set.

A

candle problem

57
Q

Describe a problem that highlights the insight approach to problem solving

A

two string problem

58
Q

How does the progress monitoring heuristic work?

A

Problem solvers assess their rate of progress towards the goal. If progress is too slow to solve the problem, they adopt a different strategy

59
Q

Explain the planning fallacy

A

Predictions regarding time needed to complete a future task display an optimistic bias where time needed is underestimated

60
Q

Which theory of decision-making emphasises the role of emotions is making decisions?

A

prospect theory

61
Q

What does neglecting base rates refer to?

A

ignoring base-rate information when making judgements

62
Q

According to Kahneman and Tversky (1973), which heuristic plays a role in the base rate fallacy?

A

representativeness

63
Q

What does the representativeness heuristic refer to?

A

Assuming an object or person belongs to a given category because it/they appear typical or representative of that category

64
Q

What does the conjunction fallacy refer to?

A

Probability of 2 events occurring together is always less or equal to the probability of either one occurring alone

65
Q

Explain the affect heuristic associated with the availability heuristic

A

how you feel about events as you use your emotional response to influence rapid judgements

66
Q

What does the availability-by-recall mechanism refer to?

A

The number of instances you can recall e.g. direct experiences or media coverage

67
Q

What does the fluency mechanism refer to?

A

How easy it is to bring information to mind without actually retrieving all of it

68
Q

What is the theory of basic decision-making proposed by Kahneman and Tversky (1984) called?

A

Prospect theory meaning that emotions influence risky decisions

69
Q

What is the difference between expected utility theory (maximisers) and bounded rationality (satisficers) in making complex decisions?

A

Expected utility -> trying to find the best decision to get max. benefit

Bounded rationality -> content with reasonably good decisions

70
Q

Which type of research uses ambiguous cues to draw inferences about situations and events?

A

dual process model

71
Q

Describe the 2 proposed systems in the dual process model.

A

System 1 -> intuitive, automatic, emotionally charged
System 2 -> analytical, controlled, effortful

72
Q

What does the availability heuristic refer to?

A

Estimating frequencies of events based on how easy it is to retrieve them from long term memory

73
Q

What does the confirmation bias refer to?

A

A tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that confirms one’s preconceptions

74
Q

Explain how the anchoring and adjustment heuristic works.

A

Starting with a suggested reference point (anchor) and then making adjustments based on additional info to reach a final estimate

74
Q

What is loss aversion?

A

Individuals are more sensitive to potential losses than to potential gains

75
Q

What is the difference between judgement and decision making?

A

Judgement uses cues to draw inferences about events and evaluated in terms of accuracy, decision making options are presents and is evaluated in terms of consequences of decisions

76
Q

In the dual process model, which system works automatically, uses environmental cues, can result in creating quick impressions and is the basis for most of our daily decision- making?

A

system 1

77
Q

What did the study by Schwarz and colleagues (1991) demonstrate about the mechanisms underlying the availability heuristic?

A

system 1

78
Q

What did the study by Schwarz and colleagues (1991) demonstrate about the mechanisms underlying the availability heuristic?

A

Cognitive fluency can lead to positive association with that information

Cog workbook (2 decks)

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