Cog Sci (from "The Brain" and "Psychology 101") Flashcards
1
Q
What are the subdivisions of the nervous system?
A
- central nervous system
- brain and spinal cord
- peripheral nervous system
- somatic
- autonomic
- sympathetic
- parasympathetic
2
Q
What is the difference between the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system?
A
The central nervous system includes the nerves in bones. The peripheral nervous system includes the nerves not encased in bone.
3
Q
What are ways in which psychologists study the functions of different brain areas?
A
- accidents
- lesions
- electroencephalogram (EEG)
- Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT or CT)
- Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
- Positron Emisson Tomography (PET)
- Functional MRI (fMRI)
4
Q
Why are our brains wrinkled?
A
The surface of the brain is covered with neurons, and wrinkles (or fissures) increase the surface area so more neurons can connect with one another to transmit more information.
5
Q
If you want to kick a soccer ball with your right foot, which hemisphere of the brain controls this, and what principle explains it?
A
The left hemisphere controls the motor function on the right half of the body and vice versa. This is called contralateral control.
6
Q
There are four lobes in the brain. Name them.
A
- frontal
- parietal
- occipital
- temporal
7
Q
Explain brain plasticity.
A
As our brains develop, there are skills or functions that are more or less important to perform to each individual. Because of this, the neuronal connections in our brains strengthen or weaken to adapt to those needed functions, especially if there is damage to other areas of the brain.
8
Q
Where is the frontal lobe located?
A
9
Q
What functions are associated with the frontal lobe?
A
- reasoning
- planning
- parts of speech
- movement
- emotions
- problem solving
10
Q
Where is the parietal lobe located?
A
11
Q
What functions are associated with the parietal lobe?
A
- movement
- orientation
- recognition
- perception of stimuli
12
Q
Where is the temporal lobe located?
A
13
Q
What functions are associated with the temporal lobe?
A
- perception/recognition of auditory stimuli
- memory
- speech
14
Q
Where is the occipital lobe located?
A
15
Q
What function is associated with the occipital lobe?
A
- visual processing
16
Q
Where is the cerebellum located?
A
17
Q
What are some functions associated with the cerebellum?
A
- Fine motor control
- Balance and equilibrium
- Muscle tone
18
Q
Describe the function of the following neurotransmitter:
serotonin
A
Serotonin is an inhibitory neurotransmitter involved in the regulation of mood, sleep, appetite, and memory.
Serotonin is derived from the amino acid tryptophan.
19
Q
Describe the function of the following neurotransmitter:
dopamine
A
Dopamine is an inhibitory neurotransmitter involved in mood, reward circuits, sleep, pleasure, and voluntary movement.
Dopamine plays a major role in the pathophysiology of Parkinson’s disease and schizophrenia.
20
Q
Describe the function of the following neurotransmitter:
norepinephrine
A
Norepinephrine is invovled in the body’s fight-or-flight response and the activation of the sympathetic nervous system; it acts to increase heart rate and blood pressure, trigger the release of glucose, and increase blood flow to skeletal muscles.
Norepinephrine is both a neurotransmitter and a hormone, and is commonly referred to as noradrenaline.
21
Q
Describe the function of the following neurotransmitter:
epinephrine
A
Epinephrine is involved in the activation of the sympathetic nervous system and assists in the body’s fight-or-flight response; it works to regulate heart rate, blood pressure, air passage diameters, and metabolic shifts.
Epinephrine is both a hormone and a neurotransmitter, and is commonly referred to as adrenaline.
22
Q
Define:
psychoactive drugs
A
Psychoactive drugs are chemicals that cross the blood-brain barrier and alter brain chemistry and functioning; these drugs lead to changes in perception, cognition, volition, mood, or behavior.
23
Q
Define:
the blood-brain barrier
A
The blood-brain barrier is the barrier between circulating blood and the extracellular fluid of the brain.
The blood-brain barrier consists of tightly-bound cells lining blood vessels in and around the brain.
24
Q
What must a drug do in order to have any psychoactive effect?
A
Drugs must cross the blood-brain barrier in order to have a psychoactive effect.
25
# Define:
a **stimulant **
A **stimulant** is any drug that induces alertness or wakefulness, and improves mental or physical functioning.
Stimulants are often used to treat ADD and ADHD, as well as narcolepsy and other sleep disorders.
26
What are four **legal or medically prescribed stimulants**?
1. Caffeine
2. Nicotine
3. Adderall
4. Ritalin
27
What are three **illegal stimulants**?
1. Cocaine
2. Crystal meth
3. MDMA ("Ecstasy")
28
# Define:
a **depressant**
A **depressant** is any drug that reduces the activity of a certain part of the brain or body.
29
What are six **examples** of drug types listed under the category of **depressant**?
The umbrella group of **depressant** includes the following, among others:
1. Alcohol
2. Antipsychotics
3. Antihistamines
4. Barbiturates
5. Benzodiazepines
6. Opioids
30
# Define:
an **opiate**
An **opiate** is any narcotic substance derived from the opium poppy plant; opiates are considered to be the most effective drugs for relieving pain.
31
# Define:
**autism**
**Autism** is a neurodevelopmental disorder that appears within the first 3 years of a child's life.
## Footnote
Whether or not autism should be described as a "mental illness" is up for debate.
32
What are some of the major **symptoms associated with autism**?
Some of the major **symptoms** associated with **autism** include:
1. Difficulty with social interaction
2. Slow development of speaking ability
3. Repetition of overheard phrases
4. Heightened or decreased sensitivity to external stimuli
5. Distress in response to changes in routine
33
What **factors influence memory**?
1. Degree of attentiveness
2. Strength of motivation
3. Emotional state
4. Context
34
# Define:
**sensory memory **
**Sensory memory** results from the detection of stimuli by the senses.
## Footnote
Sensory memory does not require any conscious attention, lasts less than one second, and is often considered to be a component of perception.
35
# Define:
**short-term memory**
**Short-term memory** involves retaining and retrieving limited amounts of information for a short period of time, generally less than a minture.
The information held in short-term memory normally consists of 5-9 items.
36
# Define:
**working memory **
**Working memory** is the extension of short-term memory that applies cognitive processes, such as reasoning, to the items currently held in short-term memory.
Activities such as reading, writing, and solving math problems are all considered to be components of working memory.
37
# Define:
**long-term memory**
**Long-term memory** includes memories of recent facts, as well as the more consolidated memories from the distant past.
Long-term memories can last anywhere from days to years, depending on how well the information can be retrieved.
38
What are the two types of long-term memory?
The two types of long-term memory are:
1. Explicit memory (declarative)
2. Implicit memory (non-declarative)
39
# Define:
**explicit memory**
**Explicit (declarative) memory** is the sub-category of long-term memory that involves the conscious recollection of things and facts.
Explicit memory includes all those things that are described in words and you are aware of remembering.
Examples: reciting a phone number, remembering a birthday, and recalling what you ate for breakfast.
40
# Define:
**implicit memory**
**Implicit (non-declarative) memory** is the sub-category of long-term memory that involves the automatic recall of a memory.
Implicit memory includes those memories that are not expressed in words and do not require conscious effort to recall.
Examples: driving a car, riding a bike, and tying your shoes.
41
# Define:
**episodic memory **
**Episodic memory** is a type of explicit memory that is invovled with the recollection of personally experienced events specific of a time, place, and the context surrounding the event.
Episodic memory requires conscious recall in which a person views themself as an actor in the events.
Examples: remembering what you ate for dinner, what you did on your birthday, or where you went on a family vacation.
42
# Define:
**semantic memory**
**Semantic memory** is the type of explicit memory that involves retaining and recalling worldly knowledge.
## Footnote
Although semantic memory requires conscious effort to remember, the recall occurs quickly and easily, and aids in constructing a mental representation of the world.
Examples: the meaning of words, social customs, the function of objects.
43
What two factors affect how well a memory is retrieved?
The two factors that affect how well a memory is retrieved are:
1. Sleep
2. Memory organization
44
What role does sleep play in the ability to retrieve a memory?
Sleep allows for the consolidation of memories stored in the brain over the course of the day.
## Footnote
While sleep allows for the better storage of information, conversely, a lack of sleep notably hinders the learning process.
45
# Define:
**anterograde amnesia **
**Anterograde amnesia** is the inability to remember new information or events that occurred after the onset of amnesia.
46
# Define:
**retrograde amnesia **
**Retrograde amnesia** is the inability to remember information or events that occurred before the onset of amnesia.
47
On average, how many hours does an adult sleep per night?
Adults get an average of 7-8 hours of sleep per night.
## Footnote
The amount of sleep people receive is influenced by genetic make-up, lifestyle, and age.
Typically, as humans age, sleep becomes more frequent and fragmented.
48
# Describe:
the basic order of stages of the **sleep cycle**
The sleep cycle begins with stage 1 of non-REM and progresses through stages 2-4 before REM sleep is reached. After REM, sleep progresses back through non-REM beginning with stage 4 and ending with stage 1. The cycle continues to repeat throughout the night.
49
During which stage of the sleep cycle does dreaming occur?
Dreaming can occur during both REM and non-REM sleep.
## Footnote
Non-REM dreams are often short, with concrete and logical structure. On the other hand, REM sleep dreams are vivid, emotional, and often illogical.
50
What are the **physical components of the central nervous system (CNS)**?
The **brain** and the **spinal cord**.
51
# Define:
a **neuron**
A **neuron** is the electrically excitable cell that comprises the nervous system and functions to process and transmit impulses through the body.
A neuron contains a *cell body*, *dentrites*, which gather and carry impulses to the cell body, and an *axon*, which carries information away from the cell body and towards other cells.
52
How many pairs of **external brain lobes** are there on the surface of the human brain?
The human brain has **four** pairs of external brain lobes. They include the following:
1. Frontal lobe
2. Parietal lobe
3. Temporal lobe
4. Occipital lobe
There is a fifth lobe, called the insular lobe, but it cannot be seen from the surface.
53
# Define:
**Broca's area** of the brain
**Broca's area** is located in the left inferior frontal cortex and is associated with language outputs.
54
# Define:
**Wernicke's area** of the brain
**Wernicke's area** is located in the left superior posterior temporal lobe and is associated with the processing of spoken words.
55
# Define:
**brain lateralization**
**Brain lateralization** is the phenomenon in which a skill or function is preferably controlled by one side of the brain over the other, causing the hemispheres to have specialized functions.
56
What are the two **most lateralized functions** of the human brain?
**motor control** and **language **
57
What brain hemisphere is considered the **dominant hemisphere in regard to language**?
In the majority of people, the **left hemisphere** is dominant for language.
## Footnote
For most people, the right hemisphere plays a more supplemental role.
58
# Define:
**dyslexia **
**Dyslexia** is a type of dysphasia that consists of difficulties in reading or writing. Dyslexic people may confuse similar sounds or letters, reverse letters or words, or completely substitute certain words for others.
Some studies show that nearly 5-10% of the population suffers from varying degrees of dyslexia.
59
At what age do most babies speak their **first word**?
At approximately **10 months** most babies speak their first word.
## Footnote
A baby's first word is most commonly "mama" or "dada".
60
At what age to children generally have a **complete understanding of the spoken language**?
By **age 2**, most children have a nearly complete understanding of the language they hear.
## Footnote
At this age, most children can form 2-3 word sentences, and are beginning to develop language syntax skills.
61
Will the **pupil diameter **be larger when in the light or the dark?
In the **dark**.
## Footnote
In the dark, pupil diameter will increase to let in more light.
62
# Describe:
**bifocal lenses** in eyeglasses
**Bifocal lenses** are lenses in which the top half is concave, for distance vision, and the bottom half is convex, for close-up vision.
63
# Define:
the **visual field** of the eye
The **visual field** of the eye is the spatial area imprinted on the retina when the eye is focused on a distant point.
## Footnote
Centrally, the two eyes have overlapping visual fields, while the right eye's visual field extends farther to the right, and the left eye to the left.
64
What are the two major **systems of human motivation**?
the **reward circuit** and the **punishment circuit**
## Footnote
Together these two circuits form the *behavior approach system* to motivation.
65
What do **drugs** do to the **level of dopamine** in the body?
The level of dopamine **increases.**
## Footnote
An increased level of dopamine has a notable effect on the brain's reward circuit.
66
Does the brain contain a single **pain center**?
**No**, the brain does not contain a single pain center. Instead, there appears to be a *pain matrix*, whereby many brain structures are interconnected and coordinated.
67
According to modern scientists, what seems to be the **purpose of pain**?
The **purpose of pain** is to make a person aware that his/her body is damaged or is about to be damaged, allowing them to change his/her actions.
68
Why do children have **less control over their emotions**?
Children have less control over their emotions because even though the amygdala is developed, **the** **axons that project from the cortex to the amygdala are not fully developed**, and therefore children are heavily influenced by irrational emotions.
69
# Define:
scientific method
general procedures psychologists use for gathering and interpreting data
70
# Define:
hypothesis
prediction of how two or more factors are related
71
What is the difference between an independent variable and a dependent variable in an experiment?
The factor being manipulated is the **independent** variable. The factor being measured is the **dependent** variable.
72
What is a case study?
* detailed examination of one person or a small group
* beneficial for understanding rare and complex phenomena in clinical research
* not always representative of the larger population
73
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ data includes numerical measurements and __________ data includes descriptive words.
Quantitative; qualitative
74
What are descriptive statistics?
numbers that summarize a set of research data from a sample
75
# Define in terms of central tendency:
mode
most frequently occurring score in the data set
76
# Define in terms of central tendency:
median
the middle score when the data is ordered by size
77
# Define in terms of central tendency:
mean
arithmetic average of the scores in the data set
78
# Define:
normal distribution
bell-shaped, symmetric curve that represents data about many human characteristics throughout the population
79
What do variance and standard deviation measure?
average difference between each score and the mean of the data set
## Footnote
Taller, narrow curves have less variance than short, wider curves.
80
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ psychology is practical and designed for real world application, while __________ psychology is focused on research of fundamental principles and theories.
Applied; basic
81
An example of the nature vs. nurture controversy is whether intelligence derives from __________ or is \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
experience; inherited
82
Describe Ivan Pavlov's classical conditioning experiments.
Pavlov, an early behaviorist, in his famous classical conditioning experiment, trained dogs to salivate in response to the sound of a bell.
83
Who was the inspiration behind the evolutionary approach to psychology?
Charles Darwin
## Footnote
Darwin's theory of natural selection said all creatures have evolved over time in order to survive and reproduce.
84
If you are zoning out in class and your teacher suddenly uses a swear word, you will snap back to attention. What is the phenomenon called that is responsible for this?
The **cocktail party phenomenon**/effect involuntarily focuses our attention on something salient, like hearing our name in a roomful of people, or hearing a teacher curse.
85
What are the "energy senses" and why are they called that?
* vision
* audition (hearing)
* touch
These senses convert stimuli into energy, like light, sound waves, and pressure.
86
What are the "chemical senses" and why are they called that?
* taste (gustation)
* smell (olfaction)
These senses take stimuli and convert them into chemical signals to be processed.
87
What is a human's dominant sense?
vision
88
When the sun sets and everything in the dark around you looks bluish, are your rods or your cones activated?
Rods are activated. Rods react to light, rather than color, with the exception of blue, which explains why we can only see shades of blue in the dark. Cones are activated by other colors.
89
When you look at the sun for a while and then look away, why is there a dark spot in your vision for a period of time?
This is called an **afterimage**. Afterimages of red are green, and afterimages of blue are yellow and vice-versa. The opponent-process theory states that when you look at something of one color, you inhibit its color pair, which you see when you look away.
90
What characteristics of a sound wave determine what we actually hear?
The amplitude of a soundwave determines the loudness of a sound (decibels).
The frequency of a soundwave determines the pitch of a sound (hertz).
91
When you go to a loud concert and stand by the speakers, what kind of deafness are you causing for yourself?
nerve deafness
## Footnote
Loud noises damage the hair cells on the cochlea, preventing them from firing for any sounds at all, so no neural impulses reach the brain.
92
What are the five different tastes we perceive?
1. salty
2. sweet
3. bitter
4. sour
5. umami (savory or meaty tastes)
93
What makes smell different from the other senses? Why do certain smells trigger memories?
It is not processed through the thalamus. Instead, the nerves of the olfactory bulb connect with the amygdala and hippocampus, which are attached to memory and emotional response.
94
Playing a piece of music exactly as it's written could be an example of __________ thinking, while playing free-form jazz may be considered __________ thinking.
convergent; divergent
## Footnote
Convergent thinking is thinking that results in only one solution, while divergent thinking believes that there may be many answers to a problem.
95
What three distinct components comprise the mind, according to Freud?
## Footnote
1. id
2. ego
3. superego
96
What is the difference between an aptitude test and an achievement test?
* An **aptitude** test, such as the SAT, predicts a person's future performance or his/her capacity to learn
* An **achievement** test, such as the AP Psych exam, assesses what a person has already learned
