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Biology > CLONING AND BIOTECHNOLOGY > Flashcards

CLONING AND BIOTECHNOLOGY Flashcards

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1
Q

what is the asexually reproduction process in plants that produces identical plants called?

A

vegetative propagation

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2
Q

what tissue do plants use to undergo vegetative propagation?

A

meristematic / meristem tissues , which replicate by mitosis
places where meristematic tissues are found : shoot, root, between xylem and phloem

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3
Q

what can grow from meristem tissues and the correspondent tissues? and how can this cause formation of clones?

A

plantlet - detach and fall on the ground so an identical plant grows

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4
Q

what are the 4 methods of natural cloning in plants?

A

runners
rhizomes
bulbs
tubers

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5
Q

explain what runners are

A

use of horizontal stems to produce identical copies (strawberry)

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6
Q

explain what rhizomes are

A

use of underground horizontal stems to produce identical copies (ginger)

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7
Q

explain what bulbs are

A

underground stems enclosed by layers of leaves, plantlets develop in between on the layers, becoming clones (onions)

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8
Q

explain what tubers are

A

swollen underground (tubers), buds form on the surface of tubers which develop into clones (plantlet) (potatoes)

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9
Q

how can farmers encourage natural cloning of plants?

A

cutting

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10
Q

describe cutting process

A

cut at the nodes
dip the cut stem into growth hormones eg auxin
place the stem in soil, and cover it with aplastic bag to make warm and moist environment

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11
Q

what are the advantages of cutting?

A

doesn’t require expensive equipment
doesn’t require much skill
quicker than growing plants using seeds

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12
Q

what are the disadvantages of cutting?

A
  • all are identical, therefore little variation, no genetic variation so the whole population may be destroyed by a disease or environmental change
  • selection is not possible
    -limited number of clones produced by a plant
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13
Q

what is an example of artificial cloning?

A

micropropagation

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14
Q

describe the process of micropropagation

A

-cut into small pieces a component of the plant (leaves) that contain TOTIPOTENT CELLS, usually component that have meristem tissues
- the sample is called EXPLANT
- sterilise the sample using dilute bleach or alcohol to reduce the chances of contamination
- place the sample into a sterile liquid containing growth factors (agar gel), which stimulates cells to undergo mitosis and create massive cells called CALLUS
- callus is then divided up into different tubes containing hormones and nutrients
- each tube contains different ration of cytokinin and auxin
- cells that form plantlets, which are then potted

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15
Q

advantages of micropropagation

A

rapidly produces large numbers of clones
used to grow plants that are difficult to grow from seeds
can be grown at any time of the year

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16
Q

how does natural cloning in animals work?

A

an embryo splits in 2 or 3 cells to then form twins or triplets

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17
Q

what are the 2 artificial methods used to make animals clone?

A
  • artificial embryo twinning / embryo splitting
  • somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT)
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18
Q

describe artificial embryo twinning

A
  • extract an egg cell from a female animal
    -fertilise the egg in the lab
  • as the embryo develops and divides by mitosis , this is spliced in different single cells
  • the single cells than form new identical embryos
  • different embryos placed into the uterus of different surrogate animals
  • surrogate animals than give births to offspring 100% identical
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19
Q

describe somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT)

A
  • extract a somatic cell body from desired animal
  • extract the nucleus from the somatic cell
  • extract an unfertilised egg from a different animal of the same species
    -extract the nucleus from the unfertilised egg (ENUCLEATION) an gain a enucleated egg
  • fuse the somatic cell nucleus with the enucleated egg by the process of electrofusion
  • electrofusion also triggers mitotic division
  • the transformed egg divides and form an embryo
  • transfer the metro into the uterus of a surrogate animal to give birth of the clone
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20
Q

advantages of artificial cloning in animals

A
  • clone animals with desirable traits
  • clone GM animals fro medicine
  • harvest stem cells to grow tissues and organs
  • clones cells or organs will be 100% genetically identical, so no risk of rejection
  • testing medicinal drugs on cloned tissue and cell rather than testing on animals
  • increase the number of population in an endangered species
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21
Q

disadvantages of artificial cloning in animals

A
  • many clones embryos fail to develop
  • clones often die salty and have genetic abnormalities
    ethical issues with harvesting stem cells
  • less genetic variation
    -development of side effects
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22
Q

what is biotechnology?

A

the use of living organism , such as microorganism, to make products fro humans

23
Q

what are 4 examples of biotechnology?

A

-make food
-make medicine / pharmaceutical drugs
-bioremediation
-enzymes (protease and lipase used in washing machine)

24
Q

how can biotechnology be used for making food?

A
  • lactic acid to produce cheese and yoghurt
  • yeast to produce bread and ethanol, ethanol used to produce beer and wine
25
Q

to make what medicines?

A

penisillin and insulin

26
Q

what is bioremediation?

A

process by which microorganism break down contaminants on land and water

27
Q

what are the advantages of using biotechnology?

A

-reproduce very quickly so large amount in very short amount of time
- grow using waste product, reducing cost
- produce healthier high protein low cholesterol products
- rapid and cheap
- production process can occur at low temp, reducing costs

28
Q

what are the disadvantages of biotechnology?

A
  • any contamination during the product can cause food to spoil which may result in health risks
    -people may not want to eat food produced using waste products
    -food produced has little flavour, so addition of chemicals required
29
Q

how is yoghurt made using bacterias?

A

milk undergoes fermentation by lactobacillus and streptococcus.
- these bacteria convert lactose to lactic acid
-the acidity denature the milk protein, causing it to coagulate
-bacteria partially digest the milk, making it easy to digest

30
Q

how is cheese made?

A
  • milk undergoes fermentation
    once acidified, milk mixed with RENNET
  • rennet contains RENNIN (CHYMOSIN) - enzyme
    -rennin coagulate CASEIN in the presence of calcium ions
31
Q

what are the advantages of using microorganism to produce food?

A
  • production of protein is many time faster
  • production can decreased or increased according to demand
  • microorganism provide a good source of protein
  • the protein contains no animal fat or cholesterol
    production is independent of seasonal variation
32
Q

what are the disadvantages of using microorganism to produce food?

A
  • some people may not want to eat fungal protein
    -the protein has to be purified to ensure it is uncontaminated
  • the amino acid profile may be different from traditional animal protein
    -infection, the condition needed for the microorganism to grow are also ideal for pathogenic organisms, care must be taken to ensure the culture is not infected with the wrong organism
  • PALATABILITY = protein does not have the taste or texture of traditional protein
33
Q

what is continuous culture?

A

it is a culture produced by primary metabolites and their product are continuously synthesised so is continuously extracted form the fermenting broth

34
Q

what is a batch culture?

A

when a microorganism metabolises product only when placed under certain conditions (stress), these microorganism are called secondary metabolites, produce mainly during stationary phase

35
Q

what is bioremediation?

A

use of microorganism to clean the soil and underground water on polluted sites, organism convert the toxic pollutant to less harmful substances
- involves the stimulation of microbes that use the contaminants as a source of food

36
Q

what cannot bioremediation be used for?

A

heavy metals , cadmium

37
Q

what is meant by microorganism culture?

A

to process of growing bacterias by providing them with the right conditions

38
Q

what are the conditions require for cutting microorganism?

A

nutrients (provided by using broth or agar gel) = NUTRIENT / GROWTH MEDIUM
- nutrient contain peptones, yeast extract, salts,water,glucose,blood
oxygen
optimum temp
optimum pH

39
Q

what are the techniques to prevent microorganism contamination during culturing ? (aseptic techniques)

A
  • wash your hands
  • wear gloves
    -keep the agar covered as much as possible
    -disinfect the working area
    -use a Bunsen burner to heat air so air rise and prevents air-borne microorganism settling
    -pass the neck of the bottle over the flame to prevent bacteria entering the bottles
  • do not lift the Petri dish lid completely
    -glassware or metal equipment passed through the flame
40
Q

what are the 3 steps followed when growing microorganisms on agar ?

A

1 sterilisation
2 inoculation
3 incubation

41
Q

what does sterilisation involve?

A

any equipment is sterilised by heating in an autoclave (121 degrees)

42
Q

what is inoculation and what are the different ways?

A

introduction of microorganism to the sterile medium.
- streaking = wire inoculating loop used to transfer a drop of liquid medium onto agar surface
- seeding = sterile pipette used to transfer a small drop of liquid medium to the surface of the agar before agar is poured in
- spreading = sterile glass spreader used to spread the inoculated drop over the surface of the agar

43
Q

what is the main purpose of using and cutting microorganism?

A

to use the enzymes produced by those bacterias

44
Q

what are immobilised enzymes?

A

enzymes that have been stick with an insoluble material, which makes it easier to collect the enzyme at the end of the reaction

45
Q

what ae he 4 methods to immobilise enzymes?

A

-adsorption
-covalent bonding
-entrapment
-encapsulation
-membrane separation

46
Q

describe adsorption

A
  • biologist bond the surface to the enzyme via ionic bonds and hydrophobic interaction
  • possible surfaces is clay

the active site may be slightly distorted by the addition of interactions, affecting enzyme activity
bonding forces not always strong, so may detach and mix with solution

47
Q

describe covalent bonding

A

enzyme molecules are bonded to a surface via covalent bonds, bonded using cross-linking agent

  • production of covalent bonding can be expensive
    can distort enzyme active site, reduce enzyme activity
    -less likely to detach, and leak into mixture
48
Q

describe entrapment

A

-enzyme entrapped in a matrix that does not allow free movement ,
-enzyme are unaffected by entrapment remaining fully active,
-substate and product must be able to diffuse in and out, therefore suitable only for small molecules
-matrix eg is collagen

49
Q

describe membrane separation

A
  • enzymes separated from reaction mixture by a partially permeable membrane
    -substate and products must be small
50
Q

what are 6 examples of immobilised enzymes?

A

glucose isomerase
penicillin amylase
lactase
aminoacylase
glucoamylase
nitrile hydrates

51
Q

process of producing penicillin using batch culture

A
  • use of penicillium
    -nutrients added at the beginning
    -penicillin produced when nutrients are running out
    -penicillin is a secondary metabolite
    -fermentation stopped
    -penicillin harvested
    -fermenter cleaned out
    -keep at certain temp and ph
52
Q

Advantages of batch culture

A

-easy to set up
-can continue with minimal attention
-environmental conditions easy to control
- fermented can be used for different process afterwards
- less change of blockage

53
Q

advantages of continuous culture

A
  • less down time
    -high productivity
    -cost effective
    -good for using immobilised enzymes
    -small vessels can be used

Biology (18 decks)

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