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BIO HL Molecular genetics > cloning > Flashcards

cloning Flashcards

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1
Q

Define a Clone

A

A group of genetically identical organisms obtained from a single parent cell. Eg. Asexual reproduction

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2
Q

Define asexual reproduction

A

produces offspring that are genetically identical to the parent because the offspring are all clones of the original parent

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3
Q

In which organisms does asexual reproduction occur?

A

In prokaryotes and some multi/single called eukaryotes.

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4
Q

Describe artificial cloning of an animal.

A

At an early stage when embryo only consists of embryonic stem cells, The embryo of an animal is separated into multiple group cells. It is at this stage because no traits have been developed yet, they cant become variety. Then, Somatic cell nuclear transfer:
The nucleus from an egg cell is removed and replaced with somatic(body) cells. Then, *Udder cells are taken from adult donor and cultured for 6 days.
From a different sheep, unfertilised eggs are taken, nucleus removed. Donor egg without nucleus and donor cell are fused with electrical pulse: egg cell. This is transferred to the uterus of another sheep(surrogate mother). The birthed baby is identical to udder cell extracted sheep.

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5
Q

Explain cloning in only the most basic steps.

A
  1. Embryo (stem cells) broken up into groups
  2. Egg cell nucleus removed & replaced w/ somatic nucleus
  3. Udder cell taken from donor, 6day culture
  4. Unfertilised egg from diff animal, nucleus removed
  5. The above cell fuses w nucleus from udder cell via electrical pulse.
  6. Transfer into surrogate mother, c child is identical to udder donor
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6
Q

Factors affecting rooting in stem cuttings

A

Temperature
# of leaves on cutting
Hormone rooting powder
Plastic bag cover

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7
Q

WHat is the control variable in rooting from stem cuttings

A

Taking from same species, using the same soil etc

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8
Q

What is the dependent variable in rooting from stem cuttings?

A

How many roots are formed

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9
Q

What animal was cloned?

A

An animal called dolly

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10
Q

Explain cystic fibrosis

A

A standard version of the mucus regulating gene allows for mucus-producing cells to function normally. A mutation of the CFTR gene results in cystic fibrosis: producing abnormally excessive and thick amounts of mucus in organs.
Difficulties:
- Mucus blocking secretory duct: respiratory failure, cysts in ducts

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11
Q

Where is the CFTR gene found?

A

chromosome 7

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12
Q

Explain Huntington’s disease

A

An autosomal dominant disorder caused by a mutation in the HTT gene on chromosome 4.
Usually, the HTT gene has around 10-25 repeats of the CAG sequence. More than 28 repeats are unstable and them to amplify. When around 40 repeats are met, the Huntington’s disease protein misfolds and cause neurodegeneration.
Symptoms occur starting at around 40 years.
Symptoms:
Random movements(chorea) and dementia.

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13
Q

Explain very swiftly what genetic modification is.

A

A transfer of genes from one species to another, this is done using a vector(plasmid)

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14
Q

What is a vector?

A

A small loop of DNA(plasmid)

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15
Q

Explain steps in genetic modification.

A
  1. Donor DNA and Plasmid are extracted
  2. They are cut at the same point with same restriction endonuclease
  3. Sticky ends are created by adding extra nucleotide (So that DNA and plasmid can align)
  4. Plasmid and donor DNA are mixed, stick ends align
  5. DNA is inserted into a bacteria which begins reading sequence and producing a protein
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16
Q

What is restriction endonuclease?

A

It’s an enzyme created by bacteria that cuts DNA/plasmid at a specific sequence. Is oriented via a certain sequence.

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17
Q

What is insulin?

A

A hormone

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18
Q

Name three ways of cloning

A

Binary fission
Nuclear Transfer
Embryo splitting

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19
Q

What is SCNT?

A

Some attic cell nuclear transfer, generating stem cells from adult tissue.

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20
Q

What is a plants method of reproducing asexually?

A

Vegetative propagation

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21
Q

Explain binary fission.

A

A parent cell divides equally in two, producing two identical daughter organisms

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22
Q

An example of two organisms which do this.

A

Amoeba and Flatworms

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23
Q

Explain Budding

A

Cells split off the parent organism, generating a smaller daughter organism that will separate off of the parent

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24
Q

What plant performs budding?

A

Hydra

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25
Q

Explain fragmentation

A

New organisms grow from a separated fragment of the parent organism.

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26
Q

Which organisms perform Fragmentation?

A

Starfish and certain species of worms

27
Q

Explain parthenogenesis.

A

Embryos form from unfertilised ova (diploid egg forms from only female)

28
Q

Which organisms undergo parthenogenesis?

A

Insects, fish, amphibians, reptiles

29
Q

Why can plans perform vegetative propagation?

A

Because their meristem tissue is totipotent (capable of differentiation).

30
Q

What are runners?

A

Plants form horizontal stems called runners that can grow roots and become clones

31
Q

What is a common food which is clones?

A

Garlic bulbs

32
Q

What vegetable creates clones?

A

Potato

33
Q

What else on plants can create clones?

A

Spores

34
Q

Human NATURAL cloning methods:

A

Identical twins(monozygotic)
Non-identical twins(dizygotic)

35
Q

How is DNA different between dizygotic and monozygotic twins?

A

dizygotic only share 50% of the same DNA, monozygotic share all the same.

36
Q

How how identical twins created?

A

A fertilised egg(zygote) splits into two identical cells- each forming an embryo

37
Q

How do non-identical twins form?

A

When an unfertilised egg splits into two cells and each is fertilised with a different sperm.

38
Q

What is reproductive cloning?

A

A nuclear transfer between an adult cell and an enucleated oocyte. This is implanted into the uterus of a surrogate, a cloned organism will develop.

39
Q

What is an oocyte?

A

AN immature egg

40
Q

WHat is therapeutic cloning?

A

When embryonic cells are induced to develop into a specific tissue.organ for transplantation.

41
Q

Define DNA profiling

A

A technique by which individuals can be identified and compared via their respective DNA profiles.

42
Q

What is satellite DNA?

A

A long stretch of DNA made up of repeating elements called short tandem repeats

43
Q

Talking about STRs, why are DNA profiles unique?

A

There are certain tandem repeats (eg. Repeat of AGAT) that simply repeat a different number of times for different people.

44
Q

What are the three steps in the PCR process?

A
  1. Denaturing
  2. Annealing
  3. Extension
45
Q

What things are needed for the PCR test.

A

DNA sample, primers, Nucleotides, Taq polymerase, Mix Buffer, PCR Tube.

46
Q

Explain what a PPCR test is.

A

A technique used to amplify large numbers of a DNA sequence. Each cycle doubles the amount of DNA as in the cycle before. A standard PCR test of 30 cycles creates over 1 billion copies of DNA.

47
Q

Explain the stages in PCR tests.

A
  1. Desaturation: A DNA sample is headed to separate it into two separate stands (95 deg) (hydrogen bonds broken)
  2. Annealing: DNA primers attach to ends of the 3’ target sequence (55 dead)
    3:Elongation: A heat-tolerant (Taq) polymerase binds to the primer and copies the strand
48
Q

What are restriction enzymes

A
49
Q

What roles do restriction enzymes play in biotechnology?

A
50
Q

Contrast sticky vs blunt ends

A
51
Q

How do I know if a restriction site will leave sticky or blunts ends?

A
52
Q

Accurate use of a micropipette.

A
53
Q

Function and purpose of gel electrophoresis.

A
54
Q

How does electro telephones is work

A

Near the wells, where DNA is entered, there is a negative electrical current. On the other side, there’s a positive one. The gel bed consists of agarose, a gel which lets DNA pass through it. DNA travels to the positive side as it’s attracted to it.

BEFORE its entered into the wells of the gel:
The same restriction enzyme is used to cut two or more DNA sequences- at the same bases. This means, when DNA undergoes gel electrophoresis, DNA segments will travel certain lengths depending on their speed due to their size…the segments which are the same size will move the same speed and align next to each other. Comparing the two or more sequences, we can see who is the father/mother etc.

55
Q

Function of the buffer in gel electrophoresis

A

It allows for the electrical current to be transmitted through the gel efficiently.

56
Q

Function of the dye in gel electrophoresis

A

Separating DNA on their sequence length

57
Q

Function of the marker in gel electrophoresis

A

Estimating the sizes of DNA fragments.

58
Q

What is a DNA ladder?

A

A sample with known fragment sizes

58
Q

What and why is the charge of DNA?

A

Because of the phosphates, the overall charge of DNA is negative.

59
Q

Gel electrophoresis simple

A

DNA may be cut into fragments using restriction endonuclease – different DNA samples will generate different fragment lengths
Fragments separate because DNA is negatively charged due to the presence of a phosphate group on each nucleotide
DNA samples are placed into an agarose gel and fragment size calculated by comparing against known industry standards​

60
Q

WHat is gene sequencing?

A

Determining the nucleotide sequence of a gene of even a whole organism

61
Q

What is the human genome project

A
62
Q

What is an enzyme that can join two ends of DNA together?

A

DNA ligase

63
Q

What is an organisms or DNA called when it is a fusion between multiple sets of DNA?

A

Recombinant

BIO HL Molecular genetics (1 decks)

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