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Classics Flashcards

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1
Q

What were the results of Asch (1951) experiments?

A
  • 24% never conformed, 76% conformed at least once on critical trials
  • All participants experienced “puzzlement and confusion” and attempt to resolve the disagreement
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2
Q

What reasons did participants give for not conforming in Asch’s experiment?

A
  • Politeness: Perhaps the first one had a visual impairment and the others went along to not humiliate him – I better go along with it too
  • Alternatives: Perhaps the others judge the line by some other standard that I have missed – I better trust in the majority
  • Experiment: I don’t want to ruin the results of the experiment…
  • Self-doubt: Something must be wrong with me
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3
Q

Describe the results of Asch’s extensions and replications

A
  • Size of error changed (line size) little effect on conformity
  • Size of group, 3 critical group size (up to 31% from 13.6% group size 2)
  • Adding support, lack of anonymity reduced conformity
  • When confederate was minority (1/16) no influence on conformity observed
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4
Q

Describe asch’s impact and legacy

A
  • Group deficit model (just say no campaign)

- Normative/informational influence

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5
Q

Describe the results of Harlow and Harlow’s study (1962)

A
  • Monkeys raised in isolation had issues with all areas of behaviour (sex, play & defence)
  • Monkeys raised with mothers and with peers had mostly normal behaviour with no abnormalities with those raised with peers
  • Abnormal behaviours included stereotyped behaviour, self punishing behaviour and sex behaviour destroyed
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6
Q

Outline some of the debate and controversy of Harlow and Harlow’s work

A
  • Highlighted effects of early isolation
  • Some observations of humans in isolation that resembled that of the monkeys observed
  • Difficult to compare monkeys to children differences in cognition, development time and social interactions
  • Ethics
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7
Q

Explain the impact and legacy of Harlow and Harlow’s work

A
  • Highlighted how non-maternal caregivers could be effective parents, attachment isn’t always food related
  • Lead to research such as Bowlby’s and Aisnworth and insight into extreme isolation (institutions) and psychopathology
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8
Q

Describe the results of Milgrams (1961) study and extensions

A
  • 65% continued to full voltage (450)

- Refer to A-Level card (48-40-30-22-10, Yale-office-same room- touch learner-experimenter absent- group

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9
Q

Outline the debate and controversy of Milgram’s work

A
  • Ethics
  • Demand characteristics (what the experimenters wanted)
  • Burger (2009) found prompts given by experimenter were highly influential
  • Social impact theory explains how authority figures affect obedience (status, number ect)
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10
Q

Explain the impact and legacy of Milgram’s work

A
  • Have informed debate in multiple disciplines: theology, ethics, management, law, history
  • Scientific understanding of evil
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11
Q

Outline Watson & Rayner’s (1920) study’s results

A

-Conditioned a fear response to a rat using a metal bar which was generalised to other stimulus’s (fur coat and other animals)

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12
Q

Outline debate and controversy of Watson and Rayner’s work

A

-Ethics, single case study, subjective accounts

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13
Q

Outline the impact and legacy of Watson and Rayner’s work

A
  • Insight into phobia’s and possible treatments

- Triple P program of positive parenting

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14
Q

Outline Zimbardo’s experiment and results

A
  • Day 1:
  • Humiliation: Strip search; dress uniform with ID number; stockings hat; chain around ankle; only referred to by ID
  • Law enforcement: Guards wear uniform and sunglasses; own rules on how to do their job
  • Asserting authority: “Counts” during day and night; push-ups as punishment for prisoners
  • Day 2:
  • First “Release”: -Participant is “released” due to acute emotional disturbance, disorganized thinking, uncontrollable crying, and rage (three more released with similar symptoms)
  • Visitors: Groomed prisoners are allowed to meet family and friends but under arbitrary rules of waiting and surveillance
  • Mass escape plot: Leads Zimbardo to try to foil the plot by moving the prisoners
  • Payback: Harassment and humiliation
  • Day 4:
  • Visit from a ‘Priest’: offers to get legal help
  • Release of further prisoner
  • Day 5:
  • Parole Board
  • “Stand-in” prisoner on hunger strike
  • Day 6:
  • Parents send lawyer
  • Experiment is stopped
  • Observations:
  • Negative view of the group – loss of personal identity
  • Corrupting nature of power and groups to act tyrannically
  • Loss of capacity for intellectual and moral judgements in groups
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15
Q

Describe the debate and controversy of Zimabrdo’s work

A
  • Ethics
  • Zimbardo possibly guided prison guards in briefing
  • Wasn’t published in mainstream peer reviewed article
  • Observations not a findings?
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16
Q

Describe the impact and legacy of Zimbardo’s work

A
  • Impact on public’s consciousness greater than most other psychological research
  • Insight into the pathology of groups and power
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17
Q

Describe the results of Bandura’s (1961) experiment

A

-Those who were exposed to more aggressive role models acted more aggressively and were even more aggressive when exposed to same sex role models

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18
Q

Describe the debate and controversy of Bandura’s work

A

-Foundations for social learning theory

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19
Q

Describe the impact and legacy of Bandura’s work

A
  • Influenced exposure of violence in the media
  • Conflict resolution and peer mediation programs
  • Modelling therapy
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20
Q

Outline Sherif’s classic studies and their results

A

-All studies had 24 male boys aged 11-12
-1949:
Stage 1: Boys allowed to choose their own friends and develop their own friendship networks and allegiances
Stage 2: Boys deliberately placed into two different groups and placed in separate cabins
Stage 3: Groups compete for scarce resources (e.g., valued prizes, privileges, treats for winning at tug-of-war, baseball, a treasure hunt)
-Results: hierarchy established within groups, in group consolidation occurred, groups became hostile towards each other (slurs, distancing ect)

  • 1954
  • Same as 1949 but had fourth stage: Groups co-operate to achieve superordinate goals (e.g. rent a movie, find a leak in the water system, tow a broken down bus)
  • Results: supported original study and found that hostile attitudes could be overcome when groups wanted to achieve a common goal
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21
Q

Outline the debate and controversy of Sherif’s work

A
  • Field research was unconventional at the time but Sherif’s findings have been supported
  • Researchers could of encouraged behaviour through the use of raids ect (behaviour did not occur naturally)
  • Is scarce resources necessary to create conflict in groups
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22
Q

Outline the impact and legacy of Sherif’s work

A
  • A key contribution of Sherif’s work is to show that social psychological processes (leadership, conflict, prejudice) are grounded in material social reality (response to social circumstances)
  • Demonstrate how Stereotyping, prejudice and hatred are not ‘cognitive problems’, but social problems
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23
Q

Outline Piaget’s experiments (1985) and results

A

-Distinguished four stages of infant development
-Stage 1 (0-2 years): Sensori-motor stage (object permanence)
Stage 2 (2-7 years): Pre-operational stage (egocentric three mountains experiment, centration rock & sponge experiment)
Stage 3 (7-11 years): Concrete operational stage (conservation water in different beakers task)
Stage 4 (11+ years): Formal operational stage (hypothetical thinking)

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24
Q

Outline the debate and controversy of Piaget’s work

A
  • Variations on Piaget’s experimental methods yield different results i.e Bailargeon et al. (1985) found infants several months old displayed object permanence (square test) different to Piaget’s conclusions
  • Stages or continuous development
  • Argued for participatory learning in contrast to conventional passive learning
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25
Q

Outline Piaget’s impact and legacy

A
  • Piaget emphasised constructivism which is the view that children actively contribute to their own development, and systematically construct increasingly sophisticated understandings of the world
  • Provided experimental paradigms for replication and extension
26
Q

Outline Tajfel’s work and findings

A
  • Minimal group paradigm and inter-group discrimination
  • Minimal meant = (No advantage for the individual making a distribution choice/ No knowledge of identity of ingroup/outgroup members/ No face-to-face interaction/ No advantage of belonging to a particular group/ No logical reason for holding a negative attitude against the outgroup)
  • 64 boys aged 14-15 yrs
  • Groups assigned randomly participants believed it was a result of categorisation based on arbitrary criterion (views on abstract paintings)
  • Given a booklet of matrices (Tajfel matrices) and asked to allocate reward to anonymous members of each group excluding themselves (1 point= 0.1 penny)
  • Result was Across a range of studies, boys adopt a strategy which is a compromise between fairness and maximum differentiation in favour of the ingroup
  • Conclusion Social categorisation is a sufficient condition to create intergroup discrimination/ingroup favouritism/ Competition over scarce resources (negative interpedendence) is not necessary (but sufficient)
27
Q

Explain the debate and controversy of Tajfel’s work

A
  • Demand characteristics give participants the idea they are expected to act a certain way, follow up studies showed this wasn’t a significant effect
  • Similarity and reciprocity (other members in group will favour ingroup members) could cause results
  • Method infact created sufficient conditions for group differentiation (were two groups, one group to be compared to, matrices to differentiate groups)
28
Q

Outline the impact and legacy of Tajfel’s work

A
  • Prejudice like Sherif isn’t cognitive but from social relations
  • Contributed to social identity theory
29
Q

Outline Meltzoff & Moore’s (1977) work and results

A

-Participants 3 female and 3 male infants between 12 and 21-days from birth (M = 14.3 days)
-Experiment 1= Experimenter presents an unreactive “passive face” [lips closed, neutral facial expression] for 90 seconds. Infant is shown 4 gestures, each for 15 seconds, in a random order:Lip protrusion, mouth opening, tongue protrusion, and sequential finger movement
20-sec response period, experimenter presents a passive face.
-Experiment 2= Gestures were presented when the infants sucked on a pacifier (dummy) so that no behaviours that might correspond to the gesture(s) were displayed.
During the response period the experimenter presented a passive face. Only two gestures were used – mouth opening and tongue protrusion – which were counterbalanced
-Results: Both experiments showed infant imitated the shown gesture

30
Q

Outline debate and controversy of Meltzoff and Moore’s work

A
  • Piaget found results seen didn’t occur till around 8 months (much older)
  • Lack of consistent replication
31
Q

Outline the impact and legacy of Meltzoff and Moore’s work

A

-Implications for cognition and memory/development/imitation, role models, mirror neurons (brain science), age of development of theory of mind

32
Q

Outline Hamilton and Gifford’s (1979) study and results

A

-Study 1= 39 statements that described positive or negative behaviours shown by a member of Group A or Group B
Instructions: As in the real world Group B is smaller than Group A, there will be fewer statements about Group B. 26 statements about Group A, 13 statements about Group B. 27 statements about positive behaviour, 12 about negative behaviour (same ratio of +/- statements about each group)
-Assignment task where all 39 behaviours were presented and had to be assigned to each group
-Frequency estimation where an estimation about the number of - behaviours performed about each group had to be made
-Results: B (minority group) were over estimated for negative behaviours over both measures

  • Study 2= tested if negative behaviour or statistical infrequency of behaviour was the cause of study 1’s results. Repeated study one but made positive behaviours rarer
  • Results: B (minority) was overestimated with performing positive behaviours. Shows stat infrequency is cause
33
Q

Outline debate and controversy of Hamilton and Gifford’s work

A
  • external validity, groups presented participants knew nothing about unlike real life/ stereotypes are specific and not just +/-
  • Random information loss impacts minority more, lots of behaviours to remember is difficult
  • Despite ratios being the same group a is more distinguished as positive 18+ to 8- compared to 9+ to 4-
  • Inconsistent replication
34
Q

Outline the impact and legacy of Hamilton and Gifford’s work

A

-Shows how cognition can affect stereotypes

35
Q

Outline Baron-Cohen’s (1985) study and results

A

-Participants:
N = 20 autistic children (6-16 yrs old)
N = 14 children with Down’s syndrome (6-17 yrs old)
N = 27 typically developing children (3 – 6 yrs old)

  • Baron-Cohen, Leslie & Frith used a modified verson of the false belief task developed by Wimmer and Perner (1983) doll places item in a place and leaves other doll moves item, participant asked where original doll will look
  • Results: 20% of those with autism answered task correctly compared to other groups which scored 85%
36
Q

Outline debate and controversy of Baron Cohens work

A
  • Doesn’t provide full account of autism (non-social features like lack of interests, fixating on goals and planning them)
  • Deficits are also seen in other areas such as schizophrenia and depression
  • Not all people with autism fail test
37
Q

Outline the impact and legacy of Baron Cohens work

A
  • Lead to newer theory on non-social features such as empathising and systemising
  • Impacted cogntive science and developmental psychology
38
Q

Outline LaPiere’s (1934) study and results

A
  • Strong negative perception of those of Chinese descent in America
  • LaPiere travelled with young chinese couple to 251 establishments across the US
  • Only refused service once and at the majority were well received
  • After 6 months sent letter to all establishments (128/250 replied) plus 128 not visited asking if they would accept Chinese guests
  • Results: Only one of establishments visited said they would, this was the same for establishments not visited
39
Q

Outline the debate and controversy of LaPiere’s work

A
  • Temporal validity (6 month delay) attitudes change
  • Response to letter and service at the establishment could have come from different people
  • Couple only served 31 times in absence of LaPiere
  • Chinese couple were not stereotypical
  • Does politeness in social interactions override prejudice
40
Q

Outline the impact and legacy of Lapiere’s work

A
  • Lead to other theories such as theory of reasoned action (evaluation of behaviour)
  • Debate on how attitudes are measured (explicit vs implicit)
41
Q

Outline Jensen’s (1969) study and results

A
  • 123 page review of literature into studying differing IQ’s of different groups in regard to their socio-economic status, specifically looking at genetics role
  • found average african-american intelligence was less than European-Americans and less variance in the first
42
Q

Outline debate and controversy of Jensen’s work

A
  • Jensenism coined (view African-Americans are mentally inferior)
  • Scientific truth argued for (science should not be restricted from socially challenging issues)
  • Flynn effect showed that genetics aren’t strong indicator (IQ has gone up over time, faster than genetics could explain)
  • Genetics now viewed as influencing cognitive and intelligence abilities (IQ is polygenic)
  • Field remains largely undiscovered
43
Q

Outline the impact and legacy of Jensen’s work

A
  • Led to things such as early intervention programmes to those in disadvantaged groups but was only short term
  • Empirical testing on this area has been stymied
44
Q

Outline Festinger’s (1956) work and results

A
  • Dissonance= there is a tendency for individuals to seek consistency among their cognition’s, lack of consistency is referred to dissonance
  • Study 1= Festinger and colleagues infiltrated group called Seeker’s (believed in aliens making contact). Believed in meeting and boarding spacecraft on 21/12. Event never happened
  • Results= when prophecy failed dissonance was reduced through alternative explanation and new urge to recruit, which worked in the short term not the long term and group disbanded
  • Study 2= Participants had to complete a task for an hour where they turned pegs (boring task). There were three conditions where one group did the task (control), a condition where one group did the task and were asked to lie (created dissonance) and say it was entertaining to another participant for $1 and a condition where the same happened but were offered $20. They were all asked how much they enjoyed the experiment via a questionnaire at the end
  • Results= Those payed $1 said they enjoyed the experiment (solved dissonance through changing view) those payed $20 said they did not enjoy the experiment (solved dissonance through idea they had been payed) control group said they did not enjoy experiment
45
Q

Outline the debate and controversy of Festinger’s work

A
  • Conflicting replicability
  • Evidence for driver-like state (dissonance) from EEG research and use of drugs to enhance/ reduce this state
  • Further worked developed theory
46
Q

Outline the impact and legacy of Festinger’s work

A

-Application to therapy and education linked to smaller rewards being better motivators

47
Q

Outline Bradley and Bryant’s (1983) work and results

A
  • Study 1= used longitudinal approach to measure if children ability to read could be predicted through use of early rhyming and alliteration. 403 children aged 4-5 who could not read studied over 4yrs, tested on ryhming and alliteration. Over 4yrs tested on reading spelling and IQ
  • Results= Significant relationship between initial sound categorisation (alliteration, rhyme) and subsequent reading (2 tests) and spelling attainment (even when IQ and memory is controlled)
  • Study 2= 65 children in bottom 3% for initial categorisation matched into 4 groups and given 4 training regimes and tested over 2 years.
  • Results= Reading and spelling improved (only improved skills for literacy)
48
Q

Outline the debate and controversy of Bryant and Bradley’s work

A
  • Lack of control condition

- Ethics, group 3 (training) were given training not expected to work

49
Q

Outline the impact and legacy of Bryant and Bradley’s work

A
  • Impacts on education: early reading curriculum, linking oral skills to reading and writing
  • Linked to other languages
50
Q

Outline Latane and Darley’s work and results

A
  • Study 1= white smoke experiment, used undergraduates in four conditions (true aim of study not revealed). Participants were either in a group or on there own and had confederates who didst or naive participants as part of the group. They were observed on if they left the room to report the smoke and how long it took them
  • Results= Participants acted quicker and more often if they were on their own. More people intervened if they were with naive participants
  • Study 2= 72 undergraduates seated individually in rooms part of group of 1,2 or 6 ‘others’ (just recordings). One other said they were prone to seizures and alerted that they were experiencing one (participants told researcher wasn’t listening to conversations). Tested to see if participant leaves room and gets help and how long it takes them to leave
  • Results= The bigger the group the less interventions and the longer it took to intervene
51
Q

Outline the debate and controversy of Latane and Darley’s work

A

-How group norms influence response (chivalry effect), if bystander and group/person share social identity, if bystanders share social identity

52
Q

Outline the legacy and impact of Latane and Darley’s work

A
  • Meta-analysis shows consistent bystander effect across cultures
  • How bystanders are inhibited based of gender, age and location
  • Hasn’t contributed to increasing likelihood of people helping
53
Q

Outline Ceci and Bruck’s (1993) work and results

A
  • Conducted a 36 page review on child suggestibility looking at famous case studies and relevant 20th century research
  • Famous studies included King and Yuille (1987) who interviewed children with leading questions about an event they saw. They found 6yr olds more suggestible and recalled less detail then 9-16yr olds. Flin et al (1992) tested recall of a lecture using 6yr olds, 10 yr olds and adults over a 5 month period. Found recall was accurate for all groups
  • social factors can influence children’s answers, children may believe repetition of answer is wrong so change answer (adults wouldn’t do this)/ children try to answer adult questions rather than be willing to admit they don’t know or ask why
54
Q

Outline the debate and controversy of Ceci and Bruck’s work

A

-Devalued research which emphasises child’s strength, negative spin to children’s testimony’s

55
Q

Outline the impact and legacy of Ceci and Bruck’s work

A
  • Lead to further research on recall on child testimony to stressful events that showed recall was as good if not better of stressful events compared to control, were equally insusceptible to suggestibility
  • Improved forensic interviews
  • Changed legal proceedings in regard to child testimony
56
Q

Outline Triplett’s (1989) work and results

A
  • Social facilitation study (being in a group aids performance). 40 children aged 8-17 yrs asked to participate in a study in which they used a fishing reel to pull a flag across a 4m circuit. Children were asked to complete task in 6 trials of four rounds both alone and against competition
  • Results= half the boys were faster in competition scenario and half were slower or the same in competition compared to being on their own. Stimulation of competition for some meant they were less controlled and therefore were slower
57
Q

Outline debate and controversy of Triplett’s work

A
  • Lack statistical analysis at the time, recent analysis shows that the improvement of times was minimal (2% improvement)
  • Argument of social loafing were more people means less effort is put in (Ringelmann 1913 experiment using men pulling rope)
58
Q

Outline the impact and legacy of Triplett’s work

A
  • First piece of social research published which set benchmark for further research (used multiple methodologies/theories/control of confounding variables)
  • Inspired further work on the effect of presence of other people on people
59
Q

Outline Gibson and Walks (1960) study and results

A
  • Visual cliff experiment, 36 infants (6-14 months) placed on centre board (glass pane with a shallow end and deep end underneath) and mother tried to attract them to deep or shallow side
  • Results= 27 went to shallow, 3 went deep, many crawled away and cried when mum was deep
  • Also repeated with infant animals (cats, turtles, goats ect) found similair findings
  • Depth perception (motion parallax|) is innate
60
Q

Outline the debate and controversy of Gibson and Walk’s work

A
  • Hidden biases, lack of pattern caused no preference, babies who played with transparent boxes do not avoid deep side
  • Glass interferes with exploration, without glass infants dangled arms and legs and slid down after making judgement call
61
Q

Outline the impact and legacy of Gibson and Walk’s work

A
  • Insight into how depth perception works and when it is learnt
  • How interaction with environment shapes knowledge and feelings towards that environment
  • How fear can create avoidance creating a loop
  • social referencing, how infants look to mother in ambiguous situations but not obvious ones (shallow/deep slope)

Psychology degree (6 decks)

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