Classical Conditioning

Question 1

What is Classical Conditioning?

Answer 1

Classical conditioning is learning by association. It occurs when a neutral stimuli is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus. The neutral stimulus eventually produces the same response as the unconditioned stimulus.

Question 2

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)?

Answer 2

A stimulus that produces a response without any learning taking place.

Question 3

Unconditioned response (UCR)?

Answer 3

An unlearnt response to an unconditioned stimulus.

Question 4

Neutral Stimuli (NS)?

Answer 4

A stimulus that does not produce the target response . It becomes a conditioned stimulus after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

Question 5

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)?

Answer 5

A stimulus that only produces the target response after is has been paired with the UCS.

Question 6

Conditioned Response (CR)?

Answer 6

The response elicited by the CS. i.e. a new association has been learnt so that the NS/CS produces the UCR which is now called CR.

Question 7

What is Extinction?

Answer 7

When the CS and UCS have not been paired for a while and the CS ceases to elicit the CR. This extinction of response has survival value because it means that our learning is flexible - we can for example learn to stop fearing something that has been conditioned as a fear stimulus but which poses little danger.

Question 8

Spontaneous recovery?

Answer 8

An extinct response activates again so that the CS once again elicits the CR.

Question 9

Stimulus generalisation?

Answer 9

When an individual who has acquired a conditioned response to one stimulus begins to respond to similar stimuli in the same ways. For example, once conditioned to salivate at a chocolate wrapper we might find ourselves drooling at the sight of other wrappers, particularly those similar in appearance.

Question 10

What are the main features of classical conditioning?

Answer 10

Classical conditioning its the simplest form of associative learning, i.e. learning that takes place when we come to associate two stimuli with one another. Classical conditioning was discovered by Iron Pavlov in the 19th century.

Question 11

What is the process of classical conditioning?

Answer 11

Classical conditioning takes place when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together- an unconditioned stimulus and a new neutral stimulus, The NS eventually produces the same response as that produced by the UCS. This is done in three Phases.

Question 12

What is the first phase of classical conditioning?

Answer 12

Before Conditioning- UCS triggers a reflex response such as salivation, anxiety or sexual arousal. This is called unconditioned response (UCR). An unrelated NS does not produce this response.

Question 13

What is the second phase of classical conditioning?

Answer 13

During conditioning- The UCS and NS are experienced contiguously, i.e. close together in time. This is called pairing. The effect of pairing is greatest when the NS occurs just before the UCS. Usually pairing has to take place many times for conditioning tom occur.

Question 14

What is the third phase of classical conditioning?

Answer 14

After conditioning- Following pairing, the NS produces the same response as the UCS. The NS is now a conditioned stimulus (CS) and the response to it is called a conditioned response (CR).

Question 15

What is an example of classical conditioning?

Answer 15

An example of classical conditioning is learning to salivate in response to a chocolate wrapper. The wrapper is the NS until it is paired with chocolate, an UCS. After pairing, the wrapper becomes a CS and elicits a CR (salivation).

Question 16

S- What is a strength of classical conditioning?

Answer 16

A strength of classical conditioning is that it is supported by many studies conducted on both humans and animals. Pavlov demonstrated classical conditioning of salivation responses in his study of dogs. Watson and Rayner (1920) demonstrated that a fear response could be conditioned in a human baby. Brom et al (2014) concluded that human sexual responses can be largely explained by classical conditioning. This is important because it means there is firm evidence supporting the existence of classical conditioning in human and animal learning.

Question 17

O- (weakness) What is an opposing view of classical conditioning?

Answer 17

Some of Pavlov details of classical conditioning are open to question. For example, Pavlov believed that the essential factor linking NS to UCS was contiguity- the two stimuli occurring close together in time. Rescorla (1968) found evidence that contiguity is in fact less important that contingency- the extent to which the NS reliably predicts the UCS.

Question 18

D- (weakness) What is a differing approach to classical conditioning?

Answer 18

A weakness of classical conditioning is that it can only explain how a limited range of behaviour can be acquired. Classical conditioning only explains the acquisition of simple reflex responses like salivation, anxiety and sexual arousal. It cannot account for complex chains of learning behaviour. For example, classical conditioning could explain how we come to fear dogs but not the maintenance of this fear over time or the behaviours we learn in order to avoid encountering dogs. Therefore, classical conditioning is only a partial explanation for learning behaviour.

Question 19

A- What is an application of classical conditioning?

Answer 19

Classical conditioning has therapeutic applications such as systematic desensitisation and flooding. Another example of a therapy based on classical conditioning is aversion therapy. This is used, for example, to treat people who have unwanted behaviour such as experiencing sexual arousal to a photograph of a young child. A painful electric shock produces a UCR response of discomfort. The NS will become a CS and also produce a sensation of discomfort. This shows that classical conditioning is useful to psychologists as a well as being of theoretical intrest.

Question 20

What is a balanced conclusion for classical conditioning?

Answer 20

There is ample evidence to show that both humans and animals can acquire simple behavioural responses by classical conditioning. Therefore, its existence is not controversial. However, it only explains the acquisition of a small range of simple behaviours and is therefore only a partial explanation of learning.

Question 21

What was the aim in Pavlov’s classical conditioning experiment. (1927)?

Answer 21

Pavlov’s initial aim was to learn about the salivation reflex, however he noted that salivation in dogs occurred not only in response to food but to stimuli that typically occurred close in time to the presentation of food. Pavlov’s broad aim then shifted towards exploring conditioned reflexes. He was particularly interested in:

• Explaining the role of conditioned reflexes in the eating behaviour of dogs.
• Exploring how salivation becomes associated with new stimuli apparently unrelated to food and the properties of this association.

Question 22

What is the procedure of Pavlov’s experiment?

Answer 22

His experiment was done in a laboratory so the saliva could be easily observed and measured by volume or number of drops in the cannula. Salivation was the DV. The procedure took place in a soundproof chamber to minimise the effect of extraneous variables eg noise. He established a baseline by measuring salivation in response to the NS (metronome or buzzer). He then paired the NS with the UCS (food) around 20 times. He varied the presentation so the NS was presented before (forward conditioning) or after (backwards conditioning). Further variations were done to investigate extinction and spontaneous recovery of salivation. The neutral stimuli of the metronome was presented several times without the UCS which produced extinction.

Question 23

What were Pavlov’s findings?

Answer 23

An NS (metronome) did not initially elicit a salivation response, whereas the UCS of food elicited immediate salivation. After forward pairing of NS and UCS, the NS did elicit salivation after it was presented for a few seconds. In one trial Pavlov recorded that salivation commenced after 9 seconds after the metronome sound, with 45 drops of saliva collected. No salivation was recorded in response to the NS in backwards pairing. The salivation reflex only became associated with an NS if the dog was alert and undistracted. Extinction of salivation could be seen as the volume of saliva declined after repeated presentation of the CS without the UCS. The salivary response to the CS spontaneously recovered on some occasions.

Question 24

What was Pavlov’s conclusion?

Answer 24

A link is likely to be made in the brain between a UCS and a NS that occurs just before the UCS. Pavlov called this signalisation which has survival value in preparing an organism for events such as a dog can learn to salivate when it hears a buzzer so it is prepared to eat by the time food is presented.

Question 25

What was the generalisability of Pavlov’s experiment?

Answer 25

It is not generalisable to humans as Pavlov’s experiment was done on dogs. Humans have structurally different brains from other species and therefore may respond differently. Humans have a larger cerebral cortex than other species and this permits greater complex cognitive processing, including conscious choice. This is important as Pavlov (and others) believe his findings would generalise to humans however this may not be entirely true.

Question 26

What is the reliability of Pavlov’s experiment?

Answer 26

Pavlov’s study was shown to be reliable as it was repeated over 25 years with different researchers and different dog breeds. This proving that Pavlov was not the reason for the dogs salivation response and it was not only one type of dog that had this response. It was also carefully and thoroughly documented so there were standard procedures he followed.

Question 27

How has Pavlov’s experiment been applied in the wider population?

Answer 27

Pavlov’s study has been applied to eating problems and has helped understand eating behaviours. Obesity can be partially understood in terms of conditioned responses similar to those is Pavlov’s dog experiment. it has been applied to childhood obesity. Jansen suggested that overweight children have acquired strong associations between cues that predict the arrival of food and the salivation response, overeating follows the exposure to these cues. This showing the applications of this experiment have significance in developing therapies such as systematic desensitisation.

Question 28

Is Pavlov’s study valid?

Answer 28

A strength of Pavlov’s study is that it had features that reduced the impact of extraneous variables and therefore enhanced the internal validity of the study. It took place in a soundproof chamber to reduce the possibility of external sounds distracting the dogs or providing additional stimuli. The external collection of saliva in a vanilla helped prevent any loss of saliva and therefore the measurement was valid. Neutral stimuli was carefully chosen and tested to ensure they did not already elicit a salivation response. these controls made is more likely the salivation response was due to conditioning rather than extraneous variables.

Question 29

How ethical was Pavlov’s experiment?

Answer 29

Pavlov’s experiment was shown not to be ethical.
The dogs were immobilised while tested on.
The cannulas were internally fitted in their salivary glands, although this helped the validity of the experiment as no saliva was lost, it is unethical.
the dogs tested on were killed afterwards although there being no reason for this.