Classes_1-3_6-9-2013_utf8 Flashcards
What does Zeitgeist mean?
The spirit of the times
Define Idealism/idealist
having ideas and wanting to change things; idealism is primary; ideas are more real than material objects
Define Materialists
individuals don’t matter
Define Renaissance
rebirth
What was lost during the Mideival period?
a lot of classical knowledge
To counter Renaissance nature philosophy, Mersenne and his followers, including Descartes, believed and taught a clockwork view of the universe. Matter moved or changed only when ____
physically pushed by another piece of matter
Define Empiricism
learning through observation
Define Rationalism
being able to think something through and arrive at a conclusion
Who wrote about scientific paradigms and said that ‘normal science’ is research firmly based in one or more past psychological achievements
Kuhn
Who said that science books look at what the time provides a foundation for?
Kuhn
paradigms are sufficiently ___ ___ to be worked out
open ended
paradigms don’t ____ quickly
shift
Who wrote Bacon’s Natural History?
Sir Francis Bacon
What was Bacon’s Natural Hisotry?
Several volumes of random history with no tradition of research (i.e., no paradigms)
Who said “knowledge is power?”
Sir Francis Bacon
What practice came before Newton?
Optics
Who made his own telescopes?
Galileo
What do paradigms allow for?
selection, evaluation, and criticism
Benjamin Franklin’s theory (a pardigm) was effective in _____ ______ and gave scientists the notion that they were __ ___ ___ ___
guiding research; on the right track
Newton defined his scientific enterprise as the search for a small number of ___ laws from which he could deduce observed ___ in nature
mathematical; regularities
Newton did not make ___, he made ___
hypotheses; predictions
Lahey said that laws are made from ___ ____
past observations
What are the three steps Lahey says leads to law
observation leads to prediction which leads to control of nature
Lahey said that a ___ does not cause an ____
prediction; outcome
The ___ approach states that “the mere existance of a predictive regularity is not the same as a law of nature, no matter haw reliable and useful the regularity may be. The generalization “When the reading on a barometer drops, a storm will occur” states a useful correlation, not a causal law of nature”.”
causal
The causal approach argues that the goal of science is to
penetrate the causal structure of reality and discover the laws of nature
Within Behaviorism, ___ ___ cannot be observed
behavioral states (feelings, emotions, thought)
What is the pragmatic explanation of science?
Explanations are social events, speech acts, which take place in a certain social context; As scientific understanding of a problem advances, explanations of it change, too
In organisms, even though they cannot be observed____ affect behavior
mindsets (the set state where a person starts will affect their reactions)
What kind of science is psychology?
3 options: pure science, applied science, humanity (it is ht escience that is concerned with the individual person)
What is the mind?
3 options: something that simply is, a natural artifact, a cultural convention
Greek society produced ___
philosophers
Before the 6th century BCE, Greek society took from the ____
Egyptians
From the 6th to the 4th century BCE, the Greeks did what?
built schools, originated cemocratic government, etc.
What was the Bronze age conception of virtue?
living honorably by the warriors’ code and achieving prowess in bettle
What was the Homeric concept of virtue?
virtue (arete) was an achievemnt, not a state of being; virtue could be achieved by only a lucky few
Today, we think virtue is a ___ of ___ and is not won by action (the was developed by the philosophy of ___)
state; mind; stoicism
What did stoics believe about what happens in ones life?
That it was foreordained to happen
When was the Bronze age civiliation on Crete
before 1600 BCE
When was the Mycinean period?
~1200 BCE
When did Homer write the Illiad?
During the Mycinean period; ~1200 BCE
The Illiad and Odyssey did not contain a word for __. They did contain the word ___, which meant ___.
mind or personality; psuche; soul
When the Greeks awakened, they had a shared ___, but not a ___
language; history
Define ‘Suca’
roughly, soul; the Greeks had no word for mind
most food in Athens came from ___ trade
maritime
What time period was the Golden Age?
~480 - 399 BCE
After what event did the Golden Age begin?
After Athens and allies defeated the Persians
Athens was ruled by ___ ___
free citizens
___ was the economic foundation of the city-states
slavery
Who was not considered a citizen of Athens?
women, children, slaves
In Athens, what did crime lead to?
loss of rights (like speaking in a public assembly)
Who was Theos
one of the first philosophers (and first to make money on his skill)
What did Alcmaeon discover (and how did he discover it?)
he dissected the eye and traced the optic nerve back to the brain; dissected animals
What deid Alcmaeon think was in the brain?
sense organs
Who said “Man is the measure of all things” (and applied this to religion)?
Protagorus
In what three ways can “Man is the measure of all things be interpreted?
relativistic empiricism, cultural context, metaphysics
Protagorus: since ___ is the only source of knowledge, there can be no ___
perception; absolute truth
Who was Democritus?
He was one of the last classical philosophers concerned primarily with the nature of physical reality (his teacher was Leucippus of Miletus); he believed there was not God and no soul, and that there were only material atoms in empty space; he laughed at the folliws of human beings who believed in freedom and struggled against the necessities of Fate
Democritus said that every object gives of special kinds of atoms called ___, which are ___ of the object
eidola; copies
What was Democritus’ doctrine
hedonism
what is hedonism?
the persuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain
Who did Democratus agree with?
Protagorus
What was hubris?
excessive pride; a Greek sin
Who was Hipocrates (460-377 BCE)?
the father of medicine (he sought naturalistic medicing for illness; also said that diet and exercise was preferred over taking herbs
Hipocrates said that all diseases have ___ causes
natural
Hipocrates believed in the four ____
humors
Hipocrates believed that there were ___ reasons for health and mental health, not ___ issues
biological; characterological (getting away from evil spirits)
How many works did Socrates author?
None that we know of
Socrates believed in R_____
rationalism
Socrates was a ___ philosopher
moral (he was unconcerned with physics and not a Sophist; he was on a self-defined quest for the nature of true virtue and goodness, though he professed not to know wha they were)
Socrates was the leading proponent of ___ theory
(Need to add)
Who were Socrates two students who wrote about him?
Zenophon and Plato
Who did Socrates learn from?
Protagonist and Zeno
Socrates fought against the ____ who ultimately tried him and put him to death
Plesians
Socrates claimed that he knew ____ and only helped to ___ ideas
nothing; birth
Socrates was concerned with ____ and helped others lead the ____ life
ethics; virtuous
Socrates did not teach; he used the ___ or ___ method
dialectic (used a special form of dialogue called the elenchus - in some ways, this was the starting point of psychotherapy); Socratic
Socrates believed that everyone posessed ___ truth, even if they are unaware of it
moral
Socrates requirement that knowledge be an explicitly stated and defended theory was adopted by ___ and became the standard goal of ___ philosophy
Plato; Western
What is rationalism
relying on logic as opposed to the senses (because they deceive)
Socrates claimed that humans posess an ___ ___ that is spearable from the body and does not cease at death
immortal soul
Socrates said that ___ ____ is less valuable than reason
sense perception
Plato was the first thinker to do what?
inquie into how knowledge is possible and how it may be justified; he created the field of epistemiology (the study of knowledge), which eventually gave rise to cognitive psychology
For a Platonist, what does Truth mean?
1) A believe is True (is knowledge) only if it is true in all times and places absolutely; 2) knowledge had to be rationally justifiable
In 404 BCE, the Olgarchic faction urged ___ to enter public life, but he was appalled at what they had done to ___
Plato (~470-346 BCE), Socrates
What was Plato’s Academy?
(Need to add)
Socrates said that you cannot trust the ___, which are shifing and unreliable; true knowledge can only be gotten through ___
senses; reasoning
Who said “The wise man is a better measure of things than the fool?” (i.e., g not all men are created equal)
Plato or Socrates - need to double-check
What is the Platonic ideal?
That nothing measures up to the perfect standard upon which things are based (e.g., chair)
What is mind-body dualism
Plato says the soul includes the mind; it is not just a corporeal essence
History is s____.
subjective; “all historical judgements involve persons and points of view, one is as good as another and here is no ‘objective’ historical truth”
“When we attempt to answer the question ‘What is history?’ our answer, consciously or unconsciously, reflects _________”
“our own position in time, and forms part of our answer to the
broader question, what view we take of the society in which we live”
In terms of history, “The nineteenth century was a great age for ___”
facts
“Positivists…claim for history as a ___”
science (ascertain facts, then draw conclusions)
From ___’s law of gravity, scientists could predict ___ events; prediction from laws made control of ___ possible
Newton’s; future; nature
What was the Hempel-Oppenhein model of explanation?
scientific explanations could be regarded as logical arguments in which the event to be explained (explanandum) could be deduced from the relevant scientific laws and the observed initial conditions (explanans)
In the Hempel-Oppenheim model, explanation of an event consists of showing that
the event could have been predicted
What was the Hempel and Oppenheim sceme called?
deductive-nomological model of explanation
What was the main rival of the positivist approach to explanation?
the causal approach (Salmon)
What was the “the common-sense view of history”
separation of facts from conclusions
what did C. P. Scott say about facts and opinions?
‘Facts are sacred, opinion is free.’
What did Housman say about the accuracy of historical facts?
“accuracy is a duty, not a virtue;” It is a necessary condition of his work, but not his essential function; the necessity to establish these basic facts rests not on any quality in the facts themselves, but on an a priori decision of the historian.
What did Carl Becker (1910) argue about historical facts?
the facts of history do not exist for any historian till he creates them’
What did Croce (1920) say about history?
All history is ‘contemporary history;’ meaning that history consists essentially in seeing the past through the eyes of the present and in the light of its problems, and that the main work of the historian is not to record, but to evaluate; for, if he does not evaluate, how can he know what is worth recording?
Who was Collingwood?
the only British thinker in the present century who has made a serious contribution to the philosophy of history
Similar to Collingwood, Professor Oakeshott said about history that it is the ____ ____
historian’s experience
What is history?’ (Carr)
“a continuous process of interaction between the historian and his facts, an unending dialogue between the present and the past”
When studying history, one should study the ___ before studying the ___
historian; facts
Psychology was one of the last sciences to separate from ___ in the ___ century
philosophy; 19th century
What does psychology mean (to Aristotle)?
study of the soul
define epistemology
how human beings know the world (involves questions about sensation, perception, memory, and thinking)
who created the field of epistemiology?
Plato and Aristotle (they broadened Socrates’ quest from ethics to include the whole range of human concepts)
A Whig account of history sees history as
a series of progressive steps leading up to our current state of enlightenment
What is the Great man view of the history of science?
Great Men were the makers of history
What was the Zeitgeist view of the history of science?
large, impersonal forces outside of human control make history; tends to ignore the actions of human beings, because people are believed to be living preordained lives controlled by hidden forces working themselves out through historical process
Who wrote “In spite of our statement that the Greeks discovered the intellect, we also assert that the discovery was necessary for the intellect to come into existance,” hinging that the mind was socially constructed by Greek philosophers, poets, and dramatists during the Classical Age?
Snell - perceived conception of constructivists
Concepts of mind differ across time and culture. The textbook asks if mind was __, __, or __
discovered, invented, constructed
How did fighting differ between the Bronze and Archaic ages?
in the Bronze Age, warriors fought only one other individually; In the Archaic age, lightly armored soldiers (phalanx) fought - ordinary citizens could then claim power and began making political decisions
What is sophrosyne and what does it mean?
self-control that springs from wisdom and honors the Greek maxims “know thyself” and “nothing in excess”
Spartan warriors called themselves ___ ___
hoi hominoi/The Equals
The ancient Greek philosophers were the first thinkers to seek progress through c___
criticism (an open system of thought)
what is an open system of thought?
ideas are considered on their own, apart from the personality, character, ethnic background, or faither of the person who advances them
What is phusis?
The Greek word for the single element out of which all things are made
Those who followed Thales in searching for some such universal element (phusis) were called
physicists
Thales began a line of ___ investigation, moving away from supernatural interpretations of the universe toward ___ explanations of how things are constituted and how they work
physical; naturalistic
In Pythagoras’ geometrical reasoning, he brout to Western civilization the notion of p___
proof
Who said “no one ever steps in the same river twice?”
Heraclitus
How did Parminedes conclude that Truth should be discovered?
using logic rather than the senses (rationalism)
What is the opposing viewpoint to rationalism?
empiricism
Empedocles of Acragas (fl. 450 BCE) may be regarded as the forerunner of ___
empiricism (he proposed a purely physical basis for mental activity, which was usually attributed to a soul)
rather than speculating about human knowledge, ___ inquired into how sensation, perception, and thought actually worked
protopsychologists
Define rhetoric
the art of persuasion
What were Athenian teachers of rhetoric called?
Sophists (meaning expert)
Sophists mark an important turn in philosophy from concern with the ___ to concern with ___ ___ and how it ought to be lived
cosmos; human life
Sophists assumed that human nature is quite ___, being able to ___ to very different ways of life
flexible; adapt
what is humanism?
a concern with human nature and human living instead of the protoscientific concerns of the naturalists
what is relativistic empiricism?
a humanistic preference for Appearance over Reality (truth lies in Appearances as opposed to in Reality)
