Classes_1-3_6-9-2013_utf8 Flashcards
What does Zeitgeist mean?
The spirit of the times
Define Idealism/idealist
having ideas and wanting to change things; idealism is primary; ideas are more real than material objects
Define Materialists
individuals don’t matter
Define Renaissance
rebirth
What was lost during the Mideival period?
a lot of classical knowledge
To counter Renaissance nature philosophy, Mersenne and his followers, including Descartes, believed and taught a clockwork view of the universe. Matter moved or changed only when ____
physically pushed by another piece of matter
Define Empiricism
learning through observation
Define Rationalism
being able to think something through and arrive at a conclusion
Who wrote about scientific paradigms and said that ‘normal science’ is research firmly based in one or more past psychological achievements
Kuhn
Who said that science books look at what the time provides a foundation for?
Kuhn
paradigms are sufficiently ___ ___ to be worked out
open ended
paradigms don’t ____ quickly
shift
Who wrote Bacon’s Natural History?
Sir Francis Bacon
What was Bacon’s Natural Hisotry?
Several volumes of random history with no tradition of research (i.e., no paradigms)
Who said “knowledge is power?”
Sir Francis Bacon
What practice came before Newton?
Optics
Who made his own telescopes?
Galileo
What do paradigms allow for?
selection, evaluation, and criticism
Benjamin Franklin’s theory (a pardigm) was effective in _____ ______ and gave scientists the notion that they were __ ___ ___ ___
guiding research; on the right track
Newton defined his scientific enterprise as the search for a small number of ___ laws from which he could deduce observed ___ in nature
mathematical; regularities
Newton did not make ___, he made ___
hypotheses; predictions
Lahey said that laws are made from ___ ____
past observations
What are the three steps Lahey says leads to law
observation leads to prediction which leads to control of nature
Lahey said that a ___ does not cause an ____
prediction; outcome
The ___ approach states that “the mere existance of a predictive regularity is not the same as a law of nature, no matter haw reliable and useful the regularity may be. The generalization “When the reading on a barometer drops, a storm will occur” states a useful correlation, not a causal law of nature”.”
causal
The causal approach argues that the goal of science is to
penetrate the causal structure of reality and discover the laws of nature
Within Behaviorism, ___ ___ cannot be observed
behavioral states (feelings, emotions, thought)
What is the pragmatic explanation of science?
Explanations are social events, speech acts, which take place in a certain social context; As scientific understanding of a problem advances, explanations of it change, too
In organisms, even though they cannot be observed____ affect behavior
mindsets (the set state where a person starts will affect their reactions)
What kind of science is psychology?
3 options: pure science, applied science, humanity (it is ht escience that is concerned with the individual person)
What is the mind?
3 options: something that simply is, a natural artifact, a cultural convention
Greek society produced ___
philosophers
Before the 6th century BCE, Greek society took from the ____
Egyptians
From the 6th to the 4th century BCE, the Greeks did what?
built schools, originated cemocratic government, etc.
What was the Bronze age conception of virtue?
living honorably by the warriors’ code and achieving prowess in bettle
What was the Homeric concept of virtue?
virtue (arete) was an achievemnt, not a state of being; virtue could be achieved by only a lucky few
Today, we think virtue is a ___ of ___ and is not won by action (the was developed by the philosophy of ___)
state; mind; stoicism
What did stoics believe about what happens in ones life?
That it was foreordained to happen
When was the Bronze age civiliation on Crete
before 1600 BCE
When was the Mycinean period?
~1200 BCE
When did Homer write the Illiad?
During the Mycinean period; ~1200 BCE
The Illiad and Odyssey did not contain a word for __. They did contain the word ___, which meant ___.
mind or personality; psuche; soul
When the Greeks awakened, they had a shared ___, but not a ___
language; history
Define ‘Suca’
roughly, soul; the Greeks had no word for mind
most food in Athens came from ___ trade
maritime
What time period was the Golden Age?
~480 - 399 BCE
After what event did the Golden Age begin?
After Athens and allies defeated the Persians
Athens was ruled by ___ ___
free citizens
___ was the economic foundation of the city-states
slavery
Who was not considered a citizen of Athens?
women, children, slaves
In Athens, what did crime lead to?
loss of rights (like speaking in a public assembly)
Who was Theos
one of the first philosophers (and first to make money on his skill)
What did Alcmaeon discover (and how did he discover it?)
he dissected the eye and traced the optic nerve back to the brain; dissected animals
What deid Alcmaeon think was in the brain?
sense organs
Who said “Man is the measure of all things” (and applied this to religion)?
Protagorus
In what three ways can “Man is the measure of all things be interpreted?
relativistic empiricism, cultural context, metaphysics
Protagorus: since ___ is the only source of knowledge, there can be no ___
perception; absolute truth
Who was Democritus?
He was one of the last classical philosophers concerned primarily with the nature of physical reality (his teacher was Leucippus of Miletus); he believed there was not God and no soul, and that there were only material atoms in empty space; he laughed at the folliws of human beings who believed in freedom and struggled against the necessities of Fate
Democritus said that every object gives of special kinds of atoms called ___, which are ___ of the object
eidola; copies
What was Democritus’ doctrine
hedonism
what is hedonism?
the persuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain
Who did Democratus agree with?
Protagorus
What was hubris?
excessive pride; a Greek sin
Who was Hipocrates (460-377 BCE)?
the father of medicine (he sought naturalistic medicing for illness; also said that diet and exercise was preferred over taking herbs
Hipocrates said that all diseases have ___ causes
natural
Hipocrates believed in the four ____
humors
Hipocrates believed that there were ___ reasons for health and mental health, not ___ issues
biological; characterological (getting away from evil spirits)
How many works did Socrates author?
None that we know of
Socrates believed in R_____
rationalism
Socrates was a ___ philosopher
moral (he was unconcerned with physics and not a Sophist; he was on a self-defined quest for the nature of true virtue and goodness, though he professed not to know wha they were)
Socrates was the leading proponent of ___ theory
(Need to add)
Who were Socrates two students who wrote about him?
Zenophon and Plato
Who did Socrates learn from?
Protagonist and Zeno
Socrates fought against the ____ who ultimately tried him and put him to death
Plesians
Socrates claimed that he knew ____ and only helped to ___ ideas
nothing; birth
Socrates was concerned with ____ and helped others lead the ____ life
ethics; virtuous
Socrates did not teach; he used the ___ or ___ method
dialectic (used a special form of dialogue called the elenchus - in some ways, this was the starting point of psychotherapy); Socratic
Socrates believed that everyone posessed ___ truth, even if they are unaware of it
moral
Socrates requirement that knowledge be an explicitly stated and defended theory was adopted by ___ and became the standard goal of ___ philosophy
Plato; Western
What is rationalism
relying on logic as opposed to the senses (because they deceive)
Socrates claimed that humans posess an ___ ___ that is spearable from the body and does not cease at death
immortal soul
Socrates said that ___ ____ is less valuable than reason
sense perception
Plato was the first thinker to do what?
inquie into how knowledge is possible and how it may be justified; he created the field of epistemiology (the study of knowledge), which eventually gave rise to cognitive psychology
For a Platonist, what does Truth mean?
1) A believe is True (is knowledge) only if it is true in all times and places absolutely; 2) knowledge had to be rationally justifiable
In 404 BCE, the Olgarchic faction urged ___ to enter public life, but he was appalled at what they had done to ___
Plato (~470-346 BCE), Socrates
What was Plato’s Academy?
(Need to add)
Socrates said that you cannot trust the ___, which are shifing and unreliable; true knowledge can only be gotten through ___
senses; reasoning
Who said “The wise man is a better measure of things than the fool?” (i.e., g not all men are created equal)
Plato or Socrates - need to double-check
What is the Platonic ideal?
That nothing measures up to the perfect standard upon which things are based (e.g., chair)
What is mind-body dualism
Plato says the soul includes the mind; it is not just a corporeal essence
History is s____.
subjective; “all historical judgements involve persons and points of view, one is as good as another and here is no ‘objective’ historical truth”
“When we attempt to answer the question ‘What is history?’ our answer, consciously or unconsciously, reflects _________”
“our own position in time, and forms part of our answer to the
broader question, what view we take of the society in which we live”
In terms of history, “The nineteenth century was a great age for ___”
facts
“Positivists…claim for history as a ___”
science (ascertain facts, then draw conclusions)
From ___’s law of gravity, scientists could predict ___ events; prediction from laws made control of ___ possible
Newton’s; future; nature
What was the Hempel-Oppenhein model of explanation?
scientific explanations could be regarded as logical arguments in which the event to be explained (explanandum) could be deduced from the relevant scientific laws and the observed initial conditions (explanans)
In the Hempel-Oppenheim model, explanation of an event consists of showing that
the event could have been predicted
What was the Hempel and Oppenheim sceme called?
deductive-nomological model of explanation
What was the main rival of the positivist approach to explanation?
the causal approach (Salmon)
What was the “the common-sense view of history”
separation of facts from conclusions
what did C. P. Scott say about facts and opinions?
‘Facts are sacred, opinion is free.’
What did Housman say about the accuracy of historical facts?
“accuracy is a duty, not a virtue;” It is a necessary condition of his work, but not his essential function; the necessity to establish these basic facts rests not on any quality in the facts themselves, but on an a priori decision of the historian.
What did Carl Becker (1910) argue about historical facts?
the facts of history do not exist for any historian till he creates them’
What did Croce (1920) say about history?
All history is ‘contemporary history;’ meaning that history consists essentially in seeing the past through the eyes of the present and in the light of its problems, and that the main work of the historian is not to record, but to evaluate; for, if he does not evaluate, how can he know what is worth recording?
Who was Collingwood?
the only British thinker in the present century who has made a serious contribution to the philosophy of history
Similar to Collingwood, Professor Oakeshott said about history that it is the ____ ____
historian’s experience
What is history?’ (Carr)
“a continuous process of interaction between the historian and his facts, an unending dialogue between the present and the past”
When studying history, one should study the ___ before studying the ___
historian; facts
Psychology was one of the last sciences to separate from ___ in the ___ century
philosophy; 19th century
What does psychology mean (to Aristotle)?
study of the soul
define epistemology
how human beings know the world (involves questions about sensation, perception, memory, and thinking)
who created the field of epistemiology?
Plato and Aristotle (they broadened Socrates’ quest from ethics to include the whole range of human concepts)
A Whig account of history sees history as
a series of progressive steps leading up to our current state of enlightenment
What is the Great man view of the history of science?
Great Men were the makers of history
What was the Zeitgeist view of the history of science?
large, impersonal forces outside of human control make history; tends to ignore the actions of human beings, because people are believed to be living preordained lives controlled by hidden forces working themselves out through historical process
Who wrote “In spite of our statement that the Greeks discovered the intellect, we also assert that the discovery was necessary for the intellect to come into existance,” hinging that the mind was socially constructed by Greek philosophers, poets, and dramatists during the Classical Age?
Snell - perceived conception of constructivists
Concepts of mind differ across time and culture. The textbook asks if mind was __, __, or __
discovered, invented, constructed
How did fighting differ between the Bronze and Archaic ages?
in the Bronze Age, warriors fought only one other individually; In the Archaic age, lightly armored soldiers (phalanx) fought - ordinary citizens could then claim power and began making political decisions
What is sophrosyne and what does it mean?
self-control that springs from wisdom and honors the Greek maxims “know thyself” and “nothing in excess”
Spartan warriors called themselves ___ ___
hoi hominoi/The Equals
The ancient Greek philosophers were the first thinkers to seek progress through c___
criticism (an open system of thought)
what is an open system of thought?
ideas are considered on their own, apart from the personality, character, ethnic background, or faither of the person who advances them
What is phusis?
The Greek word for the single element out of which all things are made
Those who followed Thales in searching for some such universal element (phusis) were called
physicists
Thales began a line of ___ investigation, moving away from supernatural interpretations of the universe toward ___ explanations of how things are constituted and how they work
physical; naturalistic
In Pythagoras’ geometrical reasoning, he brout to Western civilization the notion of p___
proof
Who said “no one ever steps in the same river twice?”
Heraclitus
How did Parminedes conclude that Truth should be discovered?
using logic rather than the senses (rationalism)
What is the opposing viewpoint to rationalism?
empiricism
Empedocles of Acragas (fl. 450 BCE) may be regarded as the forerunner of ___
empiricism (he proposed a purely physical basis for mental activity, which was usually attributed to a soul)
rather than speculating about human knowledge, ___ inquired into how sensation, perception, and thought actually worked
protopsychologists
Define rhetoric
the art of persuasion
What were Athenian teachers of rhetoric called?
Sophists (meaning expert)
Sophists mark an important turn in philosophy from concern with the ___ to concern with ___ ___ and how it ought to be lived
cosmos; human life
Sophists assumed that human nature is quite ___, being able to ___ to very different ways of life
flexible; adapt
what is humanism?
a concern with human nature and human living instead of the protoscientific concerns of the naturalists
what is relativistic empiricism?
a humanistic preference for Appearance over Reality (truth lies in Appearances as opposed to in Reality)
What are the three metaphors for forms.
The sun, the line, and the cave
What are the three should Plato said rules each citizen?
Rational soul, spirited soul, desiring soul
What was the homunculus problem?
Means “leittle man;” Plato asked is to pretend a little man was our rational soul , steering the behavior of the body and managing the passions of the heart, belly, and genitals the way a charioteer steers the chariot and masters its horses
Aristotle studied under who?
Plato
Plato was quasi m___ while Aristotle always remained a s___ (biologist)
Mystical; scientist
Aristotle has been called the first ____ philosopher
systematic
Where did Aristotle go to school?
Plato’s academy
Aristotle synthsized the __ of pythagoras and the ___ of Plato
(need to add)
Aristotle presented ideas ___
forcefully
The Allegory of the Cave (would draw conclusions from the shadows) is an example of e___
empiricism - you can’t trust your senses, you can trust your reason
Rationalism goes from the ___/___ concept to the specific ____
general/broad; example
Empiricism takes from ___ and get to the ___/___ ___
specific examples; principle/the broad idea
Define Inductive reasoning
From observation/empiricism; create first principles from them (makes broad generalizations from specific observations)
Deine Deductive reasoning
the Rationalist way (Einstein was a deductive thinker) (starts out with a general statement, or hypothesis, and examines the possibilities to reach a specific, logical conclusion. The scientific method uses deduction to test hypotheses and theories.)
Who was Aristotle’s teacher and mentor?
Plato
Where Plato was ___, Aristotle was more ___
mystical; down to earth
Aristotle observed nature to ___
define what is (we have to have the observed facts)
Aristotles views were essentially m___
monistic - you cannot separate matter from form or soul from body
Aristotle was the main philosopher for the ___ from the 12th century on
church
Aristotle’s philosophy was more interested in understanding things than
making new things or coming up with practical systems for things
Aristotle emphasized ___ reasoning (unlike Plato)
inductive
matter (Aristotle)
some kind of undifferentiated physical stuff; matter as it existed in the first seconds after the Big Bang; was subject to obs and analysis only if it was joined to form
form (Plato)
Platonic ideal of something; believed the forms were separable, but the concept was unnecessary; perfect Objects in the realm of Being
form (Aristotle)
a practical distinction; the mind receives the form of an object, but not it’s matter; this is the same for all senses (matter is simply what something is made of
perception (Aristotle)
things appear to us as they are (can also perceive the characteristics of something, but mistake it’s form; an error of judgement of perception; Plato said you cannot trust your senses)
cave allegory
perceived shadow correctly; misjudged it
What did Epicurious teach?
That happiness was to be found by avoiding strong passions (including erotic love, dependence on others, etc.); taught that there was no soul and thus no possibility of suffering in the Aterlife
What is Common Sense for Aristotle?
allows us to take what we perceive through our senses and make it whole
According to Aristotle, why is a sharp distinction drawn between sensing an object and judging what it is?
Because those two processes are performed in different parts of the brain
What is substance (Aristotle)?
form, matter, complex of both
What are the 3 causes of form?
essential, efficient, final
essential cause
defining aspects; definition/form
efficient cuase
how things come to have their defining aspects (e.g., chopping hamburger meat and shaping it)
final cause
why these defining aspects came to be; something that Newton rejects (e.g., Why is there gravity, why is there a hamburger?); teleology (metaphysical, feigning hypotheses)
How do the three causes explain shy (not how) is the sky blue (what is the purpose of it being blue)?
Essential - because it’s blue; efficient - we experience a quality of blue when we see light at a certain wavelength; final - we don’t know why it’s blue, it just is blue, there is no purpose, it just is
What is the soul (Aristotle)?
“According to Aristotle, the soul is equal to the powers of nutrition, sensation, thinking, and motivity”
for Aristotle, the soul requires a ___
body (thera is an aspect of duality)
animals have the psychic power of ___ and ___
sensation; appetite (have a sense of food)
Aristotle: The soul of each being is right for the ___ of each being
body (all living things have a soul, including plants)
What is the great chain of being?
line to triangle to square, etc.; the striving for actualization creates a grand hierarchy among all things (The Chain of Being is composed of a great number of hierarchical links, from the most basic and foundational elements up through the very highest perfection, in other words, God)
Aristotle did not belive in prior ___ (knowing what one would know from birth; apriori knowledge)
knowledge; our capacity for sensation led to perception of theworld; these were stored in memory
humans use ___ which allows for recollection of mental imagees stored perception; use imagination to recollect from images and make generalizations (different from Platonic or Socratic learning)
imagination
Aristotle discussed three laws of association. What were they?
similarity, contrast, contiguity
Similarity
you can associate two things because they are similar
contrast
you can associate two things because they are very different
contiguity
things that are seen next to one another (conceptually or physically), these things become associated
What was Aristotles law of causality?
Causally linked experiences remind us of one another
Who was the father of Associatism?
Aristotle
development of learning; nature vs nurture - who advocated for attending to what a child is expolsed?
Aristotle
___ said we use sensory perceptions of part of learning.
Aristotle (in contrast to Plato and Socrates)
According to Aristotle, everything has both Potentiality vs Actuality except for
pure matter: only has potentiality; the unmoved mover: is fully actualized perfection, so there is no potential to changes (only the unmoved mover has this actualization)
The mind is the ___ ___ of the human soul
rational part; unique to humans; stores the forms of things
mind divided into two parts
passive and active
passive mind
laregely about potential; content stored here (indiv memories) passes with the body
active mind
pure thought; acts on contents of the passive mind to achieve rational knowledge of universals; unchangeable and thus immortal; not a personal soul; it is the same in all humans (like a capacity that everyone has)
What is the relation between the soul and the body (Aristotle)?
They are inseparable
What is relation between the soul and the body (Plato)?
Believed in dualism (the separation of the soul from the body)
The idea that the world was a machine was a central idea of the ___ ___
Scientific Revolution
The Scientific Revolution began with the publication of Copernicus’ Revolution of the Heavenly Orbes, which proposed what?
that the sun, not the earth, was the center of the solar system
What is Gestalt psychology?
“whole” “form” psychology - bewildered American psychologists
What did Rome contribute to psychology?
rise of patrists; leading Bishops and Christian teachers; philiosopher theologians; looked at faith, but also nature of the sould, soul vs body, where do ideas come from
Who was Tertullian?
a church father; shunned sex
in 325, the council of Nicea began the codification/standardization of ___
Christianity
Who was Saint Augustine (354 -430 AD)?
a conduit of many classical ideas that entered Christianity and carried through many generations (combined stoicism, Neoplatonism, and Christian faith)
What were the Confessions?
a writing of Saint Augustine
What was Manichean?
an early branch of Christianity (but considered heretical by the Christian church); Saint Augustine belonged to this sect
St. Augustine converted to ___ at age 32.
Christianity
Saint Augustine was not concerned about knowing about the mind or self per se, but wanted to better know ___.
God (and the soul)
Saint Augustine used ___ reasoning (like Plato - goes from first principles to generalizations)
Deductive; denied concept of knowing from birth (like Plato did); there is a reason the soul comes into contact with absolute truths; ultimately the truth of God
Augustine separates mind from soul, and says soul is ___ (like Decartes) and exists on a __ __
immortal; higher plane; (links the immortal soul to the immortal god)
Augustine did not deny that information comes from the senses (empirical knowledge); but stated that we cannot be certain that our senses are not ___ us
deceiving (probably from his readings of Plato; he is a Neo Platestine)
Who said “to doubt is to think; to think is to exist”
Augustine
Did Augustine believe in Determinism or Free Will?
Free will
There can be no power like God that is ___
evil
Ockham divorced ___ from ___ and persued only the latter
faith; reason
Ockham’s razor; the law of parsimony
the simplist answer is usually the best answer; the most parsimonious answer is usually the best unless it doesn’t work
St. Thomas Aquinas was G___ (nationality)
German (Great Dumb Ox of Sicily)
St. Thomas Aquinas brought back Aristotles n__ and l__ to the church
naturalism and logic; presented rigorously logical aruguments; more empirical
Augustine is to Plato like ___ is to Aristotle
Aquinas
St. Thomas Aquinas assumed there were two types of intellect because
of the contradiction of Aristotles view of the soul that there was no afterlife and Christians’ view that there was
Aquinas was concerned with distinguishing persons, who have souls, from ___. What does he say is the difference between the two?
animals; The animal knows only pleasure or pain; the human knows right and wrong
What are the 3 possible intellects?
judgement, understanding, and reasoning
What reside in the agent intellect?
abstract ideas, truths and mysteries
Aquinas was a reluctant mind-body ___?
mind-body dualist; A person is a whole, a mind and a body. Altough the soul is transcendent, its natural place is in a body, which it fulfills and which fulfills it
What did Aquinas bring to faith?
reason (whereas Augustine wanted to use reason only to know God better); Aquinas wanted to better understand the world
What did Mislan reject?
naturalistic philosophies
What brought about the Reformation (1517 AD)?
Martin Luther nailed the 99 theses to the church door; this reformation was a return to Augustine (pitted Augustine against Aquinas); against the privilege and power in the church; a reaction to the corruption/complacency in the Catholic church
What did Protestants represent?
the disinfranchise over the Catholic hierarchy
Muslim doctors looked for the ___ structures that hosted the various aspects of mind
brain
How was Dante’s Hell arranged?
Dante’s Hell was arranged on Aristotelian lines, in strict compliance with the orthodox Catholic view of sin
publishing of Capernicus (1543) - represents a cutious ___ view of the universe
heliocentric (the sun was the center of the universe)
William Shakespeare
individualistic characters (emergence of modern idea of self); fate played a significant role (not modern); (Shakespeare would have grown up seeing passion plays and morality plays)
Rise of the Burgoisie? Why did this happen at the same time as individualism
role in life defined by their birth (preordained); the role of individuality (a social construct) was relatively new
According to Galileo, everything was made of a__ in m__.
atoms in motion; movement was communicated by attracting and __ forces; they don’t have to touch
An important distinction between the Greeks and the Romans was not between the soul and the body, but between the soul (and exercise of thought) and m__ p__
material production
Who was Chaucer (1343-1400)?
a great fourteenth centruy English poet who created the first individualized realistic characters in English
Why is Miguel Cervantes (1547-1616) important?
He wrote Don Quixote, arguably the first novel, the premier literary form in which person character, personality, and consciousness are artistically explored
Naturalists used clocks for models of the p__ u__
physical universe
if God is a clock maker, he is not actively involved after having made the clock, so why should people go to ___?
church; The church can never be deterministic (pre-determined); naturalism (there are natural laws; God creates nature and God is done); deism
Scientists led by Descartes proposed that animals are clock-work mechanisms and that human beings are bast-machines with ___ inside
souls
what is naturalism?
the essential commitment of science because science seeks to explain things and events without reference to supernatural powers or entities of any kind
Catholics responded to reformation with counter-Reformation (Aquinian). Why?
Lutherans were about having a personal relationship with God; Catholics were not
what kind of school did Descartes attend?
a Jesuit school
What did Rene Descartes study?
Math and Philosophy; had dreams that he could use mathematical reasoning to prove philosophical truths (lived discreetly in Holland)
Descartes was credited for being the discoverer of a__ g__.
analytic geometry
Did Descartes mind-body dualism?
yes; although mind-body dualism had existed for almost 2000 years (in writing); Descartes view differed from earlier views -> allowed more of a 2-way exchange (former fiew = mind like a puppeteer and body like the puppet); Descartes said all ___ were of the body
Descartes believed that mind and body were…
2 separate entities; no qualitative similarities (body comprised of matter and has extension/located in space; mind is not matter); but mind and body are capable of interacting within the human being and influencing one another
autometon
essentially, early robots
Descartes believed animals, but not humans, were entirely machines. Hobbes claimed that ___ is a meaningless idea.
spiritual substance (he rigidly spearated philosophy from theology (irrational and meaningless))
Hobbes thought he had learned what humans were like in the absence of __
government (but humans rationally consent to follow Natural Laws)
Descartes - What is imporant about humans having language and animals not?
humans can reflect on experience and animals cannot; animals have some awareness, but only people have self-awareness
Descartes idea of plasticity (humans vs animals)
human behavior is flexible; animals have a preset disposition for every action
What was the pineal gland?
the connection between the body and soul (mind) (it’s the only part of the brain that is not replicated); this was also the site of the cartesian theatre
Descartes found that he could doubt everything except for
his own existence as a self-conscious, thinking being
What were meditations?
Descartes’ attempt to have a mathematic proof for his existance of God (this is what he set out to do) and the immortality of the soul
The Church thought of Descartes as a ___
heretic
Thinking separates humans from animals in ___, ___, and ___ of ___ (Descartes)
experience, behavior, and posession of language
Who said ‘I think therefore I am.’
Descartes (Augustine and Parminides had said similar things previously)
Descartes - optical illusions
Descartes
What was Decartes’ Meditation 3?
when he contemplates his existance, he knows the truth of his existance; math is clear, ___ is not; he must prove God’s existance and prove that God is not a deceiver
A more perfect idea has less objectivity than a ___
less perfect idea
Descartes is a r__
rationalist
Principal of causality/sufficient reason
there must be as much in any cause as there is in the effect (Descartes says we know this)
What is the Cartesian Theatre?
Descartes model of the mind (e.g., you think about your sensation of green and how reenness appears in consciousness. Looked at this way, you are no longer inspecting the leaf, you are introspecting a bit of consciousness, the sensation of green)
According to Descartes, the soul was like a mathematical point located in, but not actually occupying any ___, and doing but one thing, ___
space; thinking
Augustine looked inside himself and found ___, Decartes looked inside himself and seemed to find ___.
God; himself
What did Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677) believe about God?
God is in everything/God=nature, all things are part of God and vice versa (closed system - Nature and God were essentially the same)
Spinoza was not a dualist, he was a m__
he tried to resolve the mind-body problem; he was not a dualist, he was a monist
What did Spinoza say about the mind?
mind is produced by processes in the brain; a closed system that does not allow for free will (more consistent than Descartes)
Spinoza eliminated the concept of b___
blame (because humans did not have free will); takes moralism out of the picture (not good for the church); consistent with some hopelessness
Spinoza denied the existance of f__ c__, believing ___ to be a projection of humaniy’s feelings of purpose onto nature, applied only to events we cannot explain with eficient causes
final cause; teleology
Leibniz (1646-1716) was an exemplary m__
mathematician
Leibniz developed the system p__
parallelism (If mind and body are separate, how do we see what happens? - lead to the idea of parallelism)
What is parallelism?
Leibniz’s view is that everything in the world is made up of things called monads that are mathematical points; monads do not interact at all with one another (parallelism)
What is the analogy of parallelism?
two perfect clocks; when a bodily event occurs, a mental event occurs (God’s preestablished harmony, not causal connection)
Occasionalism
Where there is a body event, there would be a mind event sometimes (because God intervenes and makes you see it)
Leibniz distinguished p___ from s___
perception; sensation
When was the Enlightenment?
18th century in Europe
What was the Enlightment?
in with the new, out with the old
Berkeley was the ultimate i__
idealist (ideas over material things/ideas, not things, were the ultimate reality); also an empiricist; concerned that Newton’s views were ___ atheist views; if things could not be observed, it has no essential existance
What is the quote by Berkeley regarding how we view things?
Everything is perception
Locke said that all we know are our ___. Berkeley added that therefore, ___ are all that exist
ideas
What did Berkeley say about God and perception?
You are required to have God who perceives everything at all times so that things forever exist
What did Berkeley say about vision and perception?
notions about visual and depth perception; all you see is stuff, but perceive a shape (e.g., tree); make inferences based on perceptions; not an empirilist
David Hume (17__-1766) was the first ___ philosopher
first skeptical philosopher - wanted to move beyond skepticism; sought to build scince on human nature
What were Hume’s three principles of connection among ideas?
Resemblance, Continguity in time and place, Cause and Effect
resemblance
look alike
contiguity
next to each other (can be contiguous in time)
Hume ultimately rejects cause and effect because
we cannot know it; it is really a correlation and covered by contiguity
What is an example of generalization (Hume)?
all swans are white
association for Hume is ___
what holds things together (the glue of associations; the mind is a collection of sensations bound together by association) (association for hume was like gravity for Newton)
Why does Hume say empiricists can be wrong?
deductive reasoning can be quite fallable; but generally it works
Emmanual Kant (1724-1804) was a categorical i__
categorical imperitive; like the Golden rule; your behavior should set a standard behavior for others; he was Prussian
Who is sometimes cited as the greatest of modern philosophers?
Kant
Kant’s perceived the world as ___
phenomena
What did Kant call the world of things-in-themselves
neumena (his empiricist philosophy made the natural and intuitive assumption that external, neumenal objects impose themselves on understanding, which conforms itself to them
Kant was a desciple of Liebnitz until he read Hume. Then he wrote ___
critique of Pure Reason
Kant is a r__
rationalist; certain truths do exist; from the inherent structure of our minds
Kant said that the mind imposes trancendental categories of experience
the mind imposes trancendental categories of experience (space, number, causality); trancendental means logical and necessary; general understanding of concepts
Kant had an influence on W__
in Wundt’s studies of sensation and response times
Hawthorn effect
a phenomenon in which participants alter their behavior as a result of being part of an experiment or study
What was the emphasis of the Counter Enlightenment?
emphasis on reason (no passions, emotions)
Who said To exist is to feel and the first impulses of the heart are right
Rousseau
What is Utilitarianism?
a theory of human motivation based on hedinism (the pleasure principle; the seeking of pleasure and avoidance of pain)
What did Jeremy Benthan (1748-1942) argue about philosophy?
he argued that a philosophy based on anything other than avoidance of pain, attractiveness of pleasure was eronous
What is philisiphic calculus?
the greatest happiness for the greatest number
What did James Mill say about reason?
no idea of free will; reason was compounding of these ideas based on association
What did John Stuart Mill (James Mill’s son) do to utilitarian philosophy?
modified the utilitarian philosophy adding free will; asscoations could be fused to be different than the sum of their parts
What did John Stuart Mill (James Mill’s son) say about social sciences?
he championed the idea that social sciences should use the same ___ as hard sciences
Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) declared that a human’s ___ ___, not reason, is what distinguishes humans from animals
free will
Who was the first to say the mind was a blank slate?
Locke
For Locke, the mind was not merely __, it was ___.
an empty room to be furnished by experience; a complex, information-processing device prepared to convert the materials of experience into organized human knowledge
Who was the father of empiricism?
Locke
Who was the father of modern rationalist philosopy?
Descartes
What is Positivism?
philosophy of linear or logical thought, based on empiricism
August Comte (1798 - 1857) popularized ideas of the e___
popularizer of ideas of the enlightenment; said there 3 stages in human hx
What are the 3 stages in human hx according to Comte?
theological, metaphysical, scientfic
theological
things explained by supernatural (like ancient Egypt) priests rule
metaphysical
unseen forces are the cause of things, but no longer anthromorphized as gods; no resorting to supernatural to explain everything; soul is goverened by (God) and unseen essence; (Aristotles final cause - tealiological - was the whipping boy for these folks); refined aristocrats ruled
scientific
explanations drop all references to unseen forces of any type; precise mathematical principles to ___ nature; scientists rule
What was the new stage Comte thought was coming?
Put forth an idea of man mastering nature; created a flag for the new scientific France with uniforms for the scientific rulers
Positivism had a strong influence on p__
psychology; exp with pragmatists (William James, Tischner, Culpe)
Theories of evolution - what were the early thoughts
early - a great force had created the universe and everything was more or less static; things appeared to be pretty much the same through the ages (e.g., mountains, other topography)
Evolution - who put this forward?
Darwin after it had bounced around for a while; Jean Baptiste Lamar
Jean Baptiste Lamar (1744 - 1899) - a naturalist
organic matter was qualitatively different from inorganic matter
Lamar’s idea of evolution
each living species has a drive to protect itself, adapting to it surroundings; surroundings lead to adaptations (frogs getting stronger legs); being able to pass along what you gain to the next generation
What was Darwin’s cotribution to evolution?
natural selection; the mechanism through which evolution occurs; if a mutation increases a chance of survival, it is more likely to stay in the gene pool and be passed along
Huxley (pushed ___ theories)
Darwin’s; helped Darwin explain his theory
Even though Darwin had a theory of evolution, he had no ___ evidence for how things were passed along
practical
Where did Darwin maybe get some of his ideas?
selective breading of plants or animals for specific traits
Darwin was inspired by M___
Malthous - struggle for survival was based on natural selection
Darwin was cautious about publishing his ___
theories; only published because Wallace had similar research and was about to publish
Darwin’s theory was a blast against
a static view of the universe and religious beliefs (that are treated hostilly even today)
Darwin had no need for ___ in this theory
God
Darwin’s theory made humans part of ___
nature (not qualtatively different from great apes)
Was Darwin’s theory a new paradigm?
Yes
Influence of Darwin is enormous in natural sciences but also for p___
psychology (pragmatists; Functionalists, e.g., william James)
Who is associated with the birth of clinical psychology?
Franz Mezmer - a Vienese physician
Franz Mezmer believed disease was caused by ___. How did he treat disease?
fluid penetrating the world; used magnets to cure disease (animal magnetism); tried to base his work on Science
How did Mezmer use magnets to cure disease?
would place magnets on patient; patient’s would go into convulsions
French comission tested the animal magnetism
through a closed door; even though they did not use magnets, same outcome with patients occurred
Mezmer believed he could transmit magnetic impulses through a ____ after giving up his magnets
stare (Mezmerism; someone being Mezmerized); essentially a form of hypnosis; Ward used Mezmerism before amputating a leg
Charcot (a French physician) worked with hypnosis for patient’s diagnosed with
hysteria
Freud studied briefly with C__
Charcot (got ideas about hypnosis)
What is the relationship between localization of function or mass function in the brain
not sure if it worked as a whole or in individual parts
Gall (brain)
mapped out the brain - led to the development of phrenology (pseudoscience)
Marie Jean Pierre Fleuran (1794 - 1867)
French physiologist; major functions of the vertebrate brain; conducted experIments of basic physiological functions of pigeons
