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Class test 1 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What are the 7 characteristics of living things?

A

O.G.E.R.R.R.E

  1. Order
  2. Grow and Develop
  3. Energy utilization
  4. Regulation (homeostasis)
  5. Respond to stimuli
  6. Reproduce
  7. Evolve and become adapted to the environment
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2
Q

What is vertical and horizontal evolution?

A

Vertical evolution is when new species evolve from preexisting by accumulation of mutations.
Horizontal evolution is gene transfer between different species.

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3
Q

What is the biological hierarchy?

A

From small to big,

  • Atoms
  • Molecules
  • Cells, tissues, organs and organ systems
  • Individuals
  • Ecological organization
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4
Q

What are cells?

A

The smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing. The “building block of life”

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5
Q

What are the 4 basic types of tissues?

A
  • Muscular tissue
  • Nervous tissue
  • Connective tissue
  • Epithelial tissue
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6
Q

What are organs?

A

2 or more tissues working together.

Almost every organ is composed of all 4 tissues. (connective, muscular, nervous, epithelial)

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7
Q

What is an organ system?

A

A group of organs performing a specific function.

ex: the digestive system

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8
Q

State the hierarchy of organisms and above:

A

Organisms, which are individuals, make up populations.
Different populations make up communities.
The Ecosystem is composed of communities and their physical surroundings.
The biosphere is all of Earth’s ecosystems.

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9
Q

2 major processes of ecosystem dynamics?

A
  1. cycling of nutrients (ex. water cycle)

2. flow of energy from sunlight to producers to consumers.

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10
Q

What are producers, consumers, and decomposers?

A

Autotrophs: Producers create their own food from simple raw materials (often energy from the sun to glucose).

Heterotrophs: Consumers depend on producers for food. They obtain energy by breaking down food produced by the autotrophs. (mitochondria vs chloroplast)

Saprotrophs: Decomposers are also heterotrophs that obtain their energy by breaking down dead organic matter.

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11
Q

Where is the cell’s heritable information stored?

A

In the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), which itself is stored in the nucleus (for eukaryotic cells) and in the nucleoid region (for prokaryotic cells).

It is the basic blue print of an organism.

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12
Q

What are the two main form of cells?

A

Eukaryotic and prokaryotic.

Eukaryotic: has its DNA in the nucleus, has membrane bound organelles.

Prokaryotic: has DNA in nucleoid region, and some organelles (ribosomes etc. )

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13
Q

What is taxonomy?

A

Science of grouping organisms on the basis of shared characteristics and giving them names. Essentially, creating groups of organisms and naming them.

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14
Q

What are the three domains of life?

A

B.A.E

Bacteria (prokaryotes)
Archae (prokaryotes)
Eukarya (eukaryotes)

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15
Q

What is the hierarchy of taxonomic classification?

A

D.K.P.C.O.F.G.S (dik penus cough je sais)

From general to specific:

Domain 
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
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16
Q

What is the binomial system?

A

Each species gets a genus and a species name unique to them. Genus name capitalized, species name not capitalized and both italicized.

ex: Homo sapiens.
Panthera onca

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17
Q

Describe components of evolution.

A

Random mutations, natural selection (only one that is not random), founder effect (part of population is separated from rest) and bottleneck effect (entire population is killed due to random and sudden cataclysm except for small part of population).

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18
Q

2 main types of scientific inquiry?

A
  • Discovery science (Observation)

- Hypothesis-based science

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19
Q

What are the variables of a scientific hypothesis?

A

IT MUST BE TESTABLE.

Independent and dependent variable.
The independent is the variable being manipulated.
The dependent is the variable being observed. No control over this variable.

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20
Q

How do you formulate a hypothesis?

A
  1. State the problem you are trying to solve.
  2. use “if-then” statement.
  3. define the variables
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21
Q

What is the Null hypothesis (H0) and the Alternate hypothesis (HA) ?

A

The null hypothesis states that there is no difference between control group and experimental group. In an experiment, you are trying to prove that the null hypothesis is false, which implies the alternate hypothesis is true.

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22
Q

What is a theory?

A

A broad explanation of some aspect of the natural world that is substantiated by a large body of evidence.

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23
Q

Steps of the scientific method?

A
  1. Observation
  2. Form a hypothesis
  3. Make a prediction based on hypothesis
  4. Test prediction
  5. Interpret data
  6. draw conclusions

NEVER ABSOLUTE FACT because data only supports hypothesis, never proves it!!

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24
Q

Factors that can falsify an experiment:

A

Avoid bias, placebo and assure reproducibility.

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25
Q

Why is carbon the backbone of biological molecules?

A

It has 4 valence electrons so it can form a large diversity of complex and large molecules.

Proteins, DNA, carbs and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all composed of carbon compounds.

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26
Q

What are functional groups?

A

Hydroxyl, Carbonyl, Carboxyl, Amino and Phosphate.

They are molecular components that attach to carbon skeleton and give the molecule distinctive chemical properties.

Tiny differences in structure can lead to profoundly different biological properties. ex: estrogen vs testosterone.

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27
Q

What are monomers?

A

Monomers are a single unit, smallest unit of repeating structure.
ex: glucose, amino acids, nucleotides.

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28
Q

What are polymers?

A

Polymers are chains of monomers joined together.

ex: glycogen, polypeptides, DNA

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29
Q

How are polymers formed?

A

Through a condensation (dehydration) reaction. Two monomers bond together through loss of a water molecule.

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30
Q

What are enzymes?

A

macromolecules that speed up reactions. (speed of formation of polymers)

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31
Q

How are monomers formed from polymers?

A

Through a hydrolysis reaction. Reverse of dehydration reaction.

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32
Q

What are the 4 main macromolecules?

A
  1. proteins (polymers)
  2. carbohydrates (polymers)
  3. lipids (polymers)
  4. nucleic acids (monomer)
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33
Q

What is most common ratio in which carbs are found?

A

C,H,O in 1:2:1

ex: CH2O, or C6H12O12

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34
Q

What are simplest form of carbohydrates?

A

monosaccharides, or single sugars, which form polysaccharides.

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35
Q

function of monosaccharides?

A

Used as major fuel in cellular respiration which produces ATP, and as raw material for building molecules.

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36
Q

What are structural isomers?

A

Substances that have identical molecular formulas (ex. glucose and fructose) but different structural formulas. I.e difference in how the atoms are arranged in the molecule.

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37
Q

What are disaccharides? (and 3 examples)

A 
two monosaccharides. 
3 common ones: 
1. lactose
2. maltose
3. sucrose
38
Q

What are two main functions of polysaccharides in organisms?

A

Energy storage and structure.

starch in plants and glycogen in animals
(Chitin and cellulose)

39
Q

Characteristics of lipids? (and most biologically important lipids [3])

A

Hydrophobic, thus very insoluble in water. Do not form polymers.

  1. Fats
  2. phospholipids
  3. steroids
40
Q

Functions of fat? (3)

A
  1. Energy storage (stores more starch and glycogen - about twice as much)
  2. Insulation against cold
  3. Protection of internal organs
41
Q

What are fats composed of? (linked to other name of fat - state it)

A

Glycerol and 3 fatty acids via an ester bond. (Fats are also called triacylglycerol)

42
Q

What is the difference between saturated fats, unsaturated fats and trans fat?

A

Saturated fats have no double bonds, which means they stack together well and are solid at room temperature.
Unsaturated fats have one or more double bonds, which means they are bent and do not stack well. They are liquid at room temperature.
Trans fats are made through hydrogenation: converting unsaturated fats to saturated fats by adding hydrogen.

43
Q

What are the 2 major components of cell membranes?

A

Phospholipid molecules and protein molecules.

44
Q

What are the functions of proteins? (8)

A 
E.S.S.T H.R.C.D
Enzymatic
Structural
Storage
Transport 
Hormonal 
Receptor 
Contractile and motor proteins
Defensive
45
Q

What are amino acids and how do they differ from one another?

A

They are organic molecules with carboxyl and amino groups that make up mammalian proteins. They differ in properties due to R groups.

46
Q

What is a polypeptide?

A

It is a polymer of amino acids. (proteins are one or more polypeptides)

47
Q

Describe the 4 levels of protein structure.

A
  1. Primary structure is the sequence of amino acids in a protein (like the order of letters in a word).
  2. Secondary structure is essentially the primary structure in coils and folds, which are created by hydrogen bonds. The coil is called the alpha helix and the folded structure is called the beta pleated sheet.
  3. Tertiary structure is determined by interactions between R groups. (hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, hydrophobic interacts and van der waals). This is also a polypeptide chain.
  4. Quaternary structure results when two or more polypeptide chain form one macromolecule. ex: hemoglobin and collagen.
48
Q

What are the two main parts of nucleic acids?

A
  1. Alternating backbone of sugar and phosphate molecules.

2. Each of the sugar groups in the backbone is attached to a nucleotide base.

49
Q

What is the direction of DNA and RNA?

A

DNA is read from 5’ to 3’, and RNA is read from 3’ to 5’.

50
Q

What are the complementary bases?

A

AT and GC (adenine - thymine) and (guanine - cytosine)

In RNA, AU (uracil - adenine)

51
Q

What are the 2 types of polymers that nucleic acid form?

A

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA)

52
Q

What are the (3) components of nucleotides?

Describe them:

A
  1. pentose sugar. In DNA, dexyribose. In RNA it is ribose.
  2. nitrogenous base. Two families: pyrimidines and purines -> cytosine, thymine, etc…
  3. a phosphate group
53
Q

Why does complementary base pairing happen?

A to T and G to C

A

Because of the structural shape of purines and pyrimidines. They form correct width of DNA double helix.

54
Q

Structural differences between RNA and DNA?

A

RNA:

  • Sugar is ribose
  • Base is AGCU
  • 1 strand

DNA:

  • sugar is deoxyribose
  • AGCT
  • two strands; double helix
55
Q

What is ATP?

A

Special nucleotide. Adenosine triphosphate. Produced by cellular respiration using glucose, and is then used as fuel by the cells by separating 1 phosphate. (it stores energy in its phosphate-to-phosphate bonds)

56
Q

What is the central dogma?

A

Information flows in one direction when genes are expressed. DNA to RNA to Polypeptides but never reverse.

57
Q

What is the difference between starch and cellulose?

A

Starch is 1-4 linkage of alpha glucose monomers, and cellulose is 1-4 linkage of beta glucose monomers. Glycogen branches out, while the others are straight.

58
Q

What are the 3 types of RNA and their functions?

A
  1. messenger RNA (mRNA) carries the sequence of bases.
  2. Transfer RNA (tRNA) brings amino acids to the ribosome.
  3. ribosomal RNA (rRNA) combines with proteins to form ribosomes.
59
Q

what are the 2 major steps in protein synthesis?

A
  1. transcription (DNA -> RNA)
    Transcribing only 1 strand of DNA called the template strand.
  2. Translation (RNA -> protein)
60
Q

What are codons in mRNA?

Also state stop and start codons.

A

Groups of 3 nucleotides. Each codon specifies a particular amino acid.
AUG: start
UAA, UAG, UGA: stop

61
Q

What is cell theory? (3 statements)

A
  1. All living things are composed of cells
  2. Cells are the fundamental working units of organisms
  3. All new cells come from existing cells by cell division.
62
Q

Why are cells small?

A

Because for cells to function as they do, volume cannot surpass surface area by too great a ratio. Volume is linked to cell activity, and surface area is linked to the amount of nutrients a cell can absorb, and waste disposal. Also diffusion.

63
Q

What are the functions of the plasma membrane? (4)

A
  1. Membrane transport in and out of cell]
  2. selectively permeable
  3. cell signaling with receptors
  4. cell adhesion
64
Q

What are the two groups of organelles?

A
  1. Membranous organelles (endomembrane system)

2. non membranous organelles (ex. ribosomes)

65
Q

What is the purpose of the nucleolus?

A

Begins assembly of ribosomes. It does not have a membrane.

66
Q

What is the cytoplasm?

A

The cytosol is mostly water, and full of proteins so its consistency is gelatinous. Cytoplasm is the collective term for the cytosol and the organelles suspended within the cytosol. It gives shape to the cell.

67
Q

What is the two types of endoplasmic reticulum and their functions?

A

Smooth (without ribosomes) and rough (with ribosomes). The smooth synthesizes lipids, metabolizes carbs, stores calcium and detoxifies poison.
The rough ER synthesizes proteins and synthesizes membranes in the cell.

68
Q

What are vacuoles and vesicles?

A

Hollow spherical organelles. Sacs made of same material as cell membrane. Vesicles are very small vacuoles. Used to carry shit.

69
Q

What is the function of the Golgi apparatus

A

It receives and proceeds to further modify proteins from the ER, through vesicles. It is a center of manufacturing, warehousing and shipping.

70
Q

What are peroxisomes and their function?

A

Contain a variety of enzymes, and converts hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen. Their primary function is to get of toxic substances.

71
Q

What are lysosomes and their function?

A

Small bags filled with hydrolytic enzymes. They are found in nearly every animal eukaryotic cell because the enzymes in lysosomes are used to digest and use food as energy.

72
Q

What is autophagy?

A

Lysosomes take faulty and worn out organelles and reuses them to construct new organelles.

73
Q

What is phagocytosis?

A

When cells such as amoebas or protists engulf food particles to eat them.

74
Q

What is the endomembrane system?

A

A system which includes most of the membrane-bound organelles, which are either continuous or linked via transfer of vesicles.

75
Q

What are semiautonomous organelles? + 2 examples

A

Organelles that can grow and reproduce themselves but still rely on other parts of the cell.
Ex: mitochondria and chloroplast.

76
Q

What is the mitochondria and its functions?

A

Powerhouse of the cell. Converts monosaccharides into ATP through cellular respiration. It contains its own DNA and divides through binary fission.

77
Q

What are chloroplasts and its function?

A

Family of plastids. Contain chlorophyll, which is used to convert sunlight energy to glucose. Like mitochondria, contain own DNA and divide by binary fission.

78
Q

Why aren’t mitochondria and chloroplasts part of the endomembrane system?

A

Because their membranes are not produced by the rough ER but by ribosomes in the cytosol and in the mitochondria and chloroplast themselves.
They also contain their own DNA.

79
Q

What is endosymbiont theory?

A

That bacteria that require oxygen were ingested by bacteria that are poisoned by bacteria. Essentially, that eukaryotes were made by ingesting prokaryotes. This is supported by the fact that mitochondria and chloroplasts are similar to prokaryotes in a lot of ways.

80
Q

What are the non membranous organelles? (4)

A

Ribosomes, nucleolus, centrioles and the cytoskeleton.

81
Q

Describe ribosomes (where produced, where exist and what do)

A

produced in the nucleolus, migrate to ER and cytosol, and are where protein molecules are assembled.

82
Q

What is nucleolus and function?

A

Located within the nucleus, its main function is production of ribosomes. Nothing separates it from nucleoplasm.

83
Q

What are the 3 components of the cytoskeleton and its purpose?

A

Microtubules, microfilaments (actin filaments) and intermediate filaments.
Provides structure.

84
Q

What are microtubules and their function (4)?

A

Microtubules are composed of alpha and beta tubulin dimers. They are used to shape the cell, provide movement, transport and separate chromosomes during cell divison.

Vesicles move along rails provided by the cytoskeleton using ATP as fuel. It walks along the microtubules.

Centrioles are made of microtubules, and they make up centrosomes, which move chromosomes during cell divison.

The intermediate filaments, are the strongest and provide strength to the cell structure. Made of protein of keratin family.

the microfilaments provide structure and form band just beneath plasma membrane, which permits communication between proteins in the cytoplasm and proteins outside the cell. It is made of protein called actin.

85
Q

What is the extracellular matrix?

A

the ECM is right outside plasma membrane and provides extra support. has same function as plasma membrane.

86
Q

What do eukaryotic cells in plants possess and lack?

A

They have a cell wall, large central vacuole and chloroplast.
They lack centrioles and lysosomes. (they do not need them)

87
Q

What is the purpose of the cell wall?

A

It provides structural support to the plant cell, and has pores called plasmodesmata which permit movement of fluids between cells. It also prevents over-expansion of the cell (when the large vacuole fills with water).

88
Q

What is the central vacuole?

A

Large sac that occupies ~90% of the plant cell volume. It provides structure and stores various compounds.

89
Q

What are the three membranes of chloroplast?

A

Inner membrane encloses stroma, which contains enzymes responsible for photosynthesis.
Secondary membrane are called thlyakoids, ressembling flattened sacs. Thylakoids are stacked into granum.
Tertiary membrane surrounds the chloroplast.

90
Q

Differences between plant and animal eukaryotic cells?

A

Animal cells have lysosomes, centrioles and flagella (which permits movement).
Plant cells have chloroplast, cell wall and large central vacuole.

Biology 1 (4 decks)

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