Class Differences In Achievement (external factors)

Question 1

Cultural deprivation

Answer 1

A nationwide study by the Centre for Longitudinal Studies (2007) found that by the age of three, children from disadvantaged backgrounds are already up to one year behind those from more privileged homes and the gap widens with age. According to cultural deprivation theorists, many working-class families fail to socialise their children adequately. These children therefore end up being ‘culturally deprived’ i.e. they lack the cultural equipment needed to do well at school (such as language, parents’ education and working-class sub-culture) and so they underachieve.

Question 2

Language

Answer 2

Hubbs-Tait et al (2002) found that where parents use language that challenges their children to evaluate their own understanding or abilities (e.g. ‘what do you think?’ ‘are you ready for the next step?’), cognitive performance improves. Leon Feinstein (2008) found that educated parents are more likely to use language in this way.
Less educated parents- use language in simple descriptive form.

Question 3

Speech codes

Answer 3

Bernstein (1975) identifies differences between wc and mc, and he distinguishes between two types of speech code:
The Restricted Code: typically used by the wc, consisting of limited vocabulary, and based on the use of short, often unfinished, grammatically simple sentences. Speech is predictable and usually consists of one word or gestures instead.
The Elaborated Code: Typically used by the mc and has a wider vocabulary and is based on longer, grammatically more complex sentences. Speech is more varied and communicates abstract ideas.
Differences in speech give mc children an advantage at school and wc a disadvantage. Elaborated code used by teachers,textbooks and exams. Early socialisation with elaborated code=mc are already fluent.

Question 4

Evaluation of Bernstein

Answer 4

Labov (1973) criticized Bernstein for alluding to the elaborated code being superior, whereas in reality working class and middle class speech are just different, it is only the cultural dominance of the elaborated code in education that makes it seem superior.

Question 5

Evaluation of speech codes

Answer 5

Critics- Bernstein is CD theorists because he describes wc speech as inadequate. He recognises school and not just home influences kids achievement. Argues that wc pupils fail because schools fail to teach them how to use elaborated code.

Question 6

Parents education- working class

Answer 6

Douglas (1964) found that working-class parents placed less value on education. They were therefore less ambitious for their children, gave them less encouragement and took less interest in their education. They visited schools less often and were less likely to discuss their child’s progress. Their children therefore had lower levels of motivation and achievement.
Less educated parents show harsh or inconsistent discipline that emphasises ‘doing as you’re told’ and ‘behaving yourself’. Therefore the child fails to learn independence and self-control, resulting in problems with motivation and interaction with teachers at school.

Question 7

Parents education- middle class

Answer 7

parenting style emphasises consistent discipline and high expectations of their children. Mc are more aware of what is needed for successful education i.e. reading to their children, helping with homework etc. and will seek more help with childrearing. They also tend to encourage trips to museums and libraries.

Question 8

Parents education- use of income

Answer 8

Better educated parents have higher incomes and spend it in ways that promotes a children success. Bernstein & Young- mc mums are more likely to buy educational toys,books & activities that encourage reasoning skills & stimulate intellectual development. Wc homes- lack these resources & children have no skills for school.
Educated parents- better understanding of nutrition and its importance in a child- buy the right foods.

Question 9

The myth of cultural deprivation- Keddie

Answer 9

Keddie (1973) describes cultural deprivation as a ‘myth’ and sees it as a victim- blaming explanation. She dismisses the idea that failure at school can be blamed on a culturally deprived home background. She points out that a child cannot be deprived of its own culture and argues that wc children are simply culturally different, not culturally deprived.
They fail because they are put at a disadvantage by an education system that is dominated by mc values. Keddie argues that rather than seeing working- class culture as deficient, schools should recognise and build on its strengths and should challenge teachers anti- wc prejudices.

Question 10

Troy a and Williams (1986)

Answer 10

They argue that the problem is not the child’s language but the school’s attitude towards it. Teachers have a ‘speech hierarchy’: they label middle-class speech highest, followed by working-class speech and finally black speech.

Question 11

Blackstone and Mortimore (1994)

Answer 11

They reject the view that working-class parents are not interested in their children’s education. They say at they attend fewer parents’ evenings because they work longer hours or less regular hours, or even that they are put off by a school’s mc atmosphere, and not because they aren’t interested. They may actually want to help their child’s progress but they lack the knowledge and education to do so.

Question 12

Working class subculture

Answer 12

Lack of parental interest in their children’s education reflects the subcultural values of the working class. Large sections of the working-class have different goals, beliefs, attitudes and values from the rest of society and this is why their children fail at school. Sugarman (1970) proposed 4 key features that act as a barrier to educational achievement in the working-class subculture.

Question 13

Fatalism

Answer 13

A belief in fate – ‘whatever will be, will be’ and there is nothing you can do to change your status. Unlike the middle-class, there is no belief that you can change your own status.

Question 14

Collectivism

Answer 14

Valuing being part of a group more than succeeding as an individual. Unlike the middle-class who believe that an individual should not be held back by group loyalties.

Question 15

Immediate gratification

Answer 15

Seeking pleasure now rather than making sacrifices in order to get rewards in the future. Whereas the middle-class have the view that you make sacrifices now for greater rewards later, known as deferred gratification.

Question 16

Present-time orientation

Answer 16

Seeing the present as more important than the future and so not having long-term goals or plans. Whereas the middle-class culture has a future-time orientation that sees planning for the future as important.

Question 17

Workng class subculture- compensatory education

Answer 17

Tackle problems of cultural deprivation by providing extra resources to schools & communities in deprived areas.
Operation Head Start in USA- preschool education in poor areas introduced in 1960s & develop skills & Instil achievement motivation- improving parenting skills, setting up nursery classes & home visits by educational psychologists.
Sesame Street- part of Head starts = transmitting values, attitudes & skills needed for educational success- punctuality, numeracy & literacy.

Question 18

Material deprivation

Answer 18

refers to poverty and a lack of material necessities such as adequate housing and income.
According to the DfE (2012) barely 1/3 of pupils eligible for free school meals (FSM) achieve 5 or more GCSE’s at A*-C including English and Maths, against nearly 2/3 of other pupils
Jan Flaherty (2004) money problems in the family are a significant factor in younger children’s non-attendance in school
Exclusion and truancy are more likely for children from poorer families. Children excluded from school are unlikely to return to mainstream education, while 1/3 of all persistent truants leave school with no qualifications.
Nearly 90% of ‘failing’ schools are located in deprived areas.

Question 19

Material deprivation- housing

Answer 19

Overcrowding is common in working-class houses and has a direct effect by making it hard for the children to study at home e.g. no study space, disturbed sleep from sharing beds/rooms etc. Children in crowded houses also run a greater risk of suffering indirect effects such as increased likelihood of accidents due to overcrowding, cold or damp housing, or psychological distress from moving around temporary accommodation on a regular basis- all resulting in absence from school.

Question 20

Material deprivation- diet & health

Answer 20

Howard 2001- young people from poorer homes= lower intakes of energy, vitamins & minerals. Poor nutrition affects health = weakening immune system & lowering child’s energy levels = more absences from school due to illness. Children from poorer homes = emotional/behavioural problems.

Question 21

Material deprivation - financial support & costs of education

Answer 21

Bull (1984)- describes ‘the cost of free schooling’ Children from poor families have to do without equipment & miss out on experiences that would enhance their educational achievement. Also as a result, poor children may have to do with hand-me-downs and cheaper but unfashionable equipment which may result in isolation or them being stigmatised and bullied by peers. Smith and Noble (1995) add that poverty acts as a barrier to learning in other ways, such as inability to afford private schooling or tuition, and poorer quality local schools. Lack of funds also means children from poorer families may have to work part-time which can affect their education.

Question 22

Material deprivation- fear of debt

Answer 22

Going to uni= debt to cover cost of tuition fees, books & living expenses. Attitudes toward debt may deter wc students from going uni.
Jackson (2005)- wc students more debt averse- saw debt as negative & avoided it. Say more costs than benefits going uni.
Callander & Jackson- attitude to dept = more important in deciding whether to apply to uni. Most debt students (wc) were 5x less likely to apply than mot debt tolerant students (mc). Increases in tuition fees from 2012- £9000 per year = increased debt burden will deter even more wc students from applying to uni. Wc students who go to uni = likely to receive less facial support from families.
Reay (2005) - found that more working-class students would tend to choose a university near home to them, so they could save money by living at home and save on travel costs, even if it meant less chance of going to a higher status university. They were also more likely to get a job and work part-time to help fund their studies, meaning they would be less likely to get a job and work part-time to help fund their studies = they may be less likely to gain a higher level degree.

Question 23

Material deprivation - cultural or material factors

Answer 23

Some children from poor families do succeed = material deprivation only a part of the explanation. Cultural, Religious or political values of family may play part in creating & sustaining child’s motivation even despite poverty.
Feinstein - educated parents make positive contribution to a child’s achievement regardless of income level.
Mortimore & whitty (1997) - material inequalities = greatest effect on achievement. Robinson (1997) - tackling child poverty = most effective way to boost achievement.

Question 24

Cultural Capital- 3 types of capital

Answer 24

Bourdieu (1984) argues that both cultural and material factors contribute to educational achievement and are not separate but interrelated. He uses the term ‘capital’ to explain why the mc are more successful. The term capital usually refers to wealth, but in addition to economic capital (money) he identifies two more types: ‘educational capital’ (qualifications) and ‘cultural capital’. He states the middle-class generally possess more of all three types.

Question 25

Cultural Capital

Answer 25

Refers to the knowledge, attitudes, values, language, tastes and abilities of the mc. Mc culture is a type of capital because it gives an advantage to those who possess it. Like Bernstein, he argues that through their socialisation, middle-class children acquire the ability to grasp, analyse and express abstract ideas. They develop intellectual interests and an understanding of what the education system requires for success. They therefore have an advantage in school, where such abilities and interests are highly valued and rewarded with qualifications. By contrast, wc children find that school devalues their culture as ‘rough’ and inferior, and their lack of cultural capital leads to exam failure. They ‘get the message’ that education is not for them and respond by truanting, early leaving or not trying.

Question 26

Educational and Economic capital

Answer 26

Mc children with cultural capital are better equipped to meet the demands of the school curriculum and gain qualifications. Similarly, wealthier parents can convert their economic capital into educational capital by sending
their children to private schools and paying for extra tuition. Dennis Leech and Erick Compos (2003) conducted a study in Coventry, and found that mc parents are also more likely to be able to afford a house in the catchment area of a school that is highly placed in exam league tables. This is now known as ‘selection by mortgage’ because it drives up the costs of houses near to successful schools and excludes wc families.

Question 27

Testing and criticising Bourdieu’s ideas

Answer 27

Sullivan (2001) found students who read complex fiction and watched serious TV documentaries developed a wider vocabulary and greater cultural knowledge, indicating greater cultural capital. However although successful pupils with greater cultural capital were more likely to be middle-class, Sullivan found cultural capital only accounted for part of the class difference in achievement. Where pupils of different classes had the same level of cultural capital, middle-class pupils still did better. She concludes that the greater resources and aspirations of middle-class families explain the remainder of the class gap in achievement.