Class Differences In Achievement (external factors)

Question 1

What evidence did Basil Bernstein provide to support cultural deprivation theory?

Answer 1

Basil Bernstein distinguished between elaborated and restricted speech codes. W/C use restricted codes. M/C use both.

Question 2

What is restricted speech? (2)

Answer 2

Short, grammatically simple, often unfinished sentences.

Use of particularistic meanings, tied to specific contexts.

Question 3

What is elaborated speech? (2)

Answer 3

• Explicitly verbalises meanings, spells out relationships between things.
• Use of universalistic meanings.

Question 4

Why are the working class disadvantaged in education?

Answer 4

Formal education is carried out in elaborated codes, so the W/C who use restricted codes are disadvantaged.

Question 5

Why did Bernstein believe the elaborated code to be superior to the restricted code?

Answer 5

As the elaborated code allows individuals to deal with higher level concepts, develop arguments and make generalisations.

Question 6

What evidence did Barry Sugarman provide to support cultural deprivation theory?

Answer 6

Immediate gratification

Question 7

What did Barry Sugarman say about how different occupations influence our views on education?

Answer 7

Barry Sugarman noted that the different occupations of W/C and M/C may account for the differing attitudes towards education.

Question 8

According to Barry Sugarman, why do the working class tend to seek immediate gratification?

Answer 8

Sugarman argued that the working class tend to lack opportunities for career progression which makes them more likely to seek immediate gratification rather than sacrificing for future reward.

Question 9

According to Sugarman, why are working class children disadvantaged in education?

Answer 9

Sugarman argued that fatalistic attitudes and immediate gratification would be passed onto children, thus disadvantaging W/C children in education.

Question 10

What are two criticisms of cultural deprivation theory?

Answer 10

• It seems that it isn’t just cultural deprivation but also material deprivation that explains underachievement.
• Marxists would argue that cultural deprivation theorists blame the W/C parents for the underachievement of their children whereas these parents are really the victims of an unequal society in which schools are run by the M/C for the M/C.

Question 11

According to cultural deprivation theory, what are the three reasons for underachievement?

Answer 11

• Language.
• Parents education.
• Working class subculture.

Question 12

What did Hubbs-Tait say about the use of language?

Answer 12

Hubbs-Tait found that parents’ use of challenging language improves cognitive performance.

Question 13

What did Feinstein find out about parents’ language?

Answer 13

Feinstein found that educated parents are more likely to use praise.

Question 14

What did Bereiter and Engelmann claim about language in W/C homes?

Answer 14

Bereiter and Engelmann claim that the language used in lower-class homes is deficient.

Question 15

Explain three ways in which parents’ education increases the likelihood of underachievement for their children, and explain the effect of this on the child. (4).

Answer 15

• W/C parents place less value on education.
• W/C parents are less ambitious, use less encouragement and show less interest.
• W/C parents are less likely to discuss their children’s progress with teachers.
• W/C children had lower levels of motivation and achievement due to this.

Question 16

Explain the difference between educated and less educated parents’ parenting styles.

Answer 16

Educated parents emphasise consistent discipline and high expectations of their children.

Less educated parents give harsh and inconsistent discipline that emphasises ‘doing as your told’ and ‘behaving yourself’. This prevents independence and self-control.

Question 17

What did Douglas find about w/c parents?

Answer 17

Working class parents placed less value on education.

Question 18

How do parents’ educational behaviours differ between educated and uneducated parents? (3)

Answer 18

• Educated parents are more aware of what is needed to assist their children’s educational progress.
• Educated parents are more likely to engage in behaviour such as reading to their children and helping with homework.
• Educated parents recognise the educational value of activities such as visits to museums and libraries.

Question 19

What did Bernstein and Young find out about M/C mothers?

Answer 19

M/C mothers are more likely to buy educational toys, books and activities that encourage reasoning skills and stimulate intellectual development.

Question 20

What is another way educated parents can support child development by using their income?

Answer 20

Educated parents have a better understanding of nutrition and its importance in child development and a higher income with which to buy more nutritious food.

Question 21

What is a subculture?

Answer 21

A group whose attitudes and values differ from those of the mainstream culture.

Question 22

What do cultural deprivation theorists argue about working-class subculture?

Answer 22

Large sections of the W/C have different goals, beliefs, attitudes and values from the rest of society so they fail at school.

Question 23

As stated by Sugarman, what are the four key features that act as a barrier to educational achievement?

Answer 23

• Fatalism (‘whatever will be, will be’- nothing you can do to change your status).
• Collectivism (valuing being part of a group more than succeeding as an individual).
• Immediate gratification (seeking pleasure now rather than making sacrifices in order to get rewards in the future).
• Present-time orientation (seeing present as more important than future).

Question 24

How does immediate gratification differ between the classes?

Answer 24

W/C- seek pleasure now rather than making sacrifices in order to get rewards in the future.

M/C- emphasise deferred gratification, making sacrifices now for greater rewards later.

Question 25

How does present/future-time orientation differ between the classes?

Answer 25

W/C- present-time orientation—>see the present as more important than the future so they do not have long term goals or plans.

M/C- future-time orientation that sees planning for the future as important.

Question 26

Why do W/C children underachieve due to their subculture?

Answer 26

W/C internalise the beliefs and values of their subculture through the socialisation process and this results in them underachieving at school.

Question 27

Middle class values equip children for...
Whereas, working class values...

Answer 27

• M/C values equip children for success.

- W/C values fail to do so.

Question 28

What is compensatory education?

Answer 28

Compensatory education programmes aim to tackle the problem of cultural deprivation by providing extra resources to schools and communities in deprived areas.

Question 29

What does Keddie say about cultural deprivation and what alternative view does she put forward?

Answer 29

• She describes it as a ‘myth’ and argues W/C children are simply culturally different, not culturally deprived.
• She suggests they fail because they are put at a disadvantage by an education system that is dominated by M/C values.

Question 30

What do Blackstone and Mortimore argue about W/C parents?

Answer 30

They argue that W/C parents attend fewer parents’ evenings, not because of a lack of interest, but because they work longer or less regular hours or are put off by the school’s M/C atmosphere.

Question 31

What is material deprivation?

Answer 31

Refers to poverty and a lack of material necessities such as adequate housing and income.

Question 32

What did Flaherty claim (in terms of material deprivation)?

Answer 32

Money problems in the family are a significant factor in younger children’s non-attendance at school.

Question 33

What is an example of poor housing that can affect pupils’ achievement directly?

Answer 33

Overcrowding can have a direct effect by making it harder for the child to study.

Question 34

What are three examples of consequences of overcrowding?

Answer 34

• Less room for educational activities.
• Nowhere to do homework.
• Disturbed sleep from sharing beds or bedrooms.

Question 35

What are three indirect effects that poor housing can have on a child’s health and welfare?

Answer 35

• Children in crowded homes run a greater risk of accidents.
• Cold or damp housing can cause ill health.
• Families in temporary accommodation suffer more psychological distress, infections and accidents—> more absences from school.

Question 36

What does Marilyn Howard note (in terms of diet and health)?

Answer 36

That young people from poorer homes have lower intakes of energy, vitamins and minerals.

Question 37

What are two consequences of poor nutrition for children in school?

Answer 37

• More absences from school due to illness.

- Difficulties concentrating in class.

Question 38

What did Richard Wilkinson find out about ten years olds health in different classes?

Answer 38

Among 10 year olds, the lower the social class, the higher the rate of hyperactivity, anxiety and conduct disorders—> negative effect on education.

Question 39

What did Blanden and Machin find?

Answer 39

Children from low income families were more likely to engage in ‘externalising’ behaviour (such as fighting), which is likely to disrupt their schooling.

Question 40

What does a lack of financial support mean for children from poor families?

Answer 40

They have to do without equipment and miss out on experiences that would enhance their educational achievement.

Question 41

David Bull refers to the lack of financial support and costs of education as…

Answer 41

‘the costs of free schooling’

Question 42

What may poor children have to deal with as a result of a lack of financial support? What effect could this have on the children?

Answer 42

Poor children may have to make do with hand-me-downs and cheaper but unfashionable equipment. This may result in being isolated, stigmatised or bullied by peers.

Question 43

What does Smith and Noble argue (in terms of poverty as a barrier)?

Answer 43

Poverty acts as a barrier to learning in other ways, such as inability to afford private schooling or tuition, and poorer quality local schools.

Question 44

What did Ridge find out about children in poverty?

Answer 44

They take on jobs such as babysitting and paper rounds—> has a negative impact on schoolwork.

Question 45

What affect may a fear of debt have on students in different classes?

Answer 45

May deter W/C students from going to university.

Question 46

What did Callender and Jackson find out about W/C students’ attitudes towards debt? (2)

Answer 46

• W/C students are more debt averse- see debt as something to be avoided.
• They found that attitude to debt was important in deciding whether to apply to university.

Question 47

What is a struggle that W/C students are likely to face if they do go to university?

Answer 47

They are likely to receive less financial support from their families.

Question 48

What did Reay find out about W/C students applying to university?

Answer 48

W/C students were more likely to apply to local universities so they could live at home and save on travel costs, but this gave them less opportunity to go to the highest status universities.

Question 49

What do Mortimore and Whitty argue (material deprivation)?

Answer 49

That material inequalities have the greatest effect on achievement.

Question 50

What is an argument against the statement that income has an effect on children’s achievement through material deprivation?

Answer 50

Feinstein shows that educated parents make a positive contribution to a child’s achievement, regardless of their income level.

Question 51

What does Bourdieu use the term ‘cultural capital’ to refer to?

Answer 51

The knowledge, attitudes, values, language, tastes and abilities of the M/C.

Question 52

What does Bourdieu argue?

Answer 52

• That both cultural and material factors contribute to educational achievement.
• He identifies two further ‘capitals’ as well as economic capital- educational and cultural, and argues that the M/C generally possess more of all three types of capital.
• He argues that through their socialisation, M/C children acquire the ability to grasp, analyse and express abstract ideas.

Question 53

Why are M/C children given a huge advantage over W/C through cultural capital?

Answer 53

Because the M/C abilities and interests are highly valued and rewarded with qualifications, and the education system favours and transmits dominant M/C values. Whereas, W/C children find education devalues their culture as rough and inferior.

Question 54

What did Bourdieu suggest about the three types of capital?

Answer 54

Educational, economic and cultural capital can be converted into one another.

Question 55

What is an example of how cultural capital can be converted into educational capital?

Answer 55

M/C children with cultural capital are better equipped to meet the demands of the school curriculum and gain qualifications.

Question 56

What is an example of how economic capital can be converted into educational capital?

Answer 56

Wealthier parents can convert their economic capital into educational capital by sending their children to private schools and paying for extra tuition.

Question 57

What did Leech and Campos find?

Answer 57

That M/C parents are more likely to afford a house in catchment area of ‘good school’.

Question 58

What did Sullivan find and conclude?

Answer 58

That CC only accounted for part of the class difference in achievement. Where pupils of different classes had the same level of CC, M/C still did better. Sullivan concludes that the greater resources and aspirations of M/C families explain the remainder of the class gap in achievement.