Class Flashcards
Propositions
statements that can be true or false
Non-propositions
are not statements about matters of fact. They do not make a claim that can be true or false
Simple propositions
Have no internal logical structure, meaning whether they are true or false does not depend on whether a part of them is true or false. They are simply true or false on their own.
Complex propositions
Have internal logical structure, meaning they are composed of simple propositions. Whether complex propositions are true or false depends on whether their parts are true or false and how those parts are connected.
premise
The premises are the claims, evidence, ideas, and so forth intended to support the conclusion.
Bad inferential structure
In arguments with a bad form or structure, the premises do not, in fact, demonstrate or maybe even support the conclusion.
False premise
In arguments with false premise(s), there is something wrong with their particular content.
How can we identify premises and conclusions?
We can sometimes identify premises and conclusions simply by recognizing the role they play in an argument.
Which words are considered premise indicators?
Because, For, Given that, In that, As, Since, As indicated by
Which words are considered conclusion indicators?
Therefore, So, It follows that, Hence, Thus, Entails that, We may conclude that, Implies that, Wherefore, As a result
Conclusions
The conclusion is the claim that the whole argument is intended to support or demonstrate or prove.
inductive/ampliative
arguments where the premises make the conclusion probable
deductive
arguments where the premises guarantee or necessitate the conclusion
Inference to the best explanation or abduction
arguments where the best available explanation is chosen as the correct explanation
Soundness
A deductive argument is sound if it has a valid structure and all its premises are true. (If an argument is deductive but has either an invalid structure or at least one false premise, then it is an unsound argument.)
Truth
Propositions are true if they accurately represent what is the case, otherwise they are false.
Validity
In a valid deductive argument, the truth of the premises would make the conclusion necessarily true. (If not, it is an invalid structure.)
Cogent
An inductive argument is cogent if it is strong and all its premises are true. (If an argument is inductive but either is weak or has at least one false premise, then is is an uncogent argument.)
Strength
In a strong inductive argument, the truth of premises would make the conclusion probably true.
Formal Fallacy
The word “formal” refers to the structure of things.
Informal Fallacy
Informal fallacies have a problem with their content.
Cognitive bias
The way we naturally categorize and make sense of the world around us.
Alief
An automatic belief-like attitude that can explain how our instinctual responses can conflict with our reasoned-out beliefs.
Heuristic
A rule of thumb, a ready strategy, or a shortcut
Algorithm bubble
The curated and personalized version of online reality that a website shows you when you log on.
Availability heuristic
A process where in the mind generalizes based on what is available to it rather than on what is objectively true.
Representativeness
The bias of representativeness occurs when one is experiencing a new situation and responds by applying the closest mental prototype in one’s experience to interpret the new situation.
narrow framing
Looking at a situation in isolation
Ad Hominem Fallacy
When one attacks the person making an argument rather than the argument itself.
genetic fallacy
when one argues that the origin of an idea is a reason for rejecting (or accepting) that idea
straw figure fallacy
when one misrepresents another’s argument then attacks the misrepresented (weaker) argument rather than the actual (stronger) argument
red herring fallacy
when one introduces an irrelevant topic
appeal to authority fallacy
when one appeals to an unqualified authority in support of one’s claim
appeal to force fallacy
when one uses a threat to compel agreement with one’s claim
appeal to popularity fallacy
when one appeals to the popularity of a belief as a reason to affirm its truth
appeal to consequences fallacy
when one appeals to the bad (or good) consequences of accepting a claim as a reason to reject (or accept) it as true
fallacy of equivocation
when one’s argument mistakenly uses the same word in two different senses
appeal to ignorance fallacy
when someone reasons from our lack of knowledge that a claim is false (or true) to the assertion the claim is true (or false)
slippery slope fallacy
when someone argues, without sufficient reason, one event will lead to a series of events ultimately ending in some further (usually disastrous) event
Texas Sharpshooter fallacy
when one selectively uses, or “cherry-picks,” only the evidence supporting their desired conclusion
post hoc fallacy
when someone claims some event causes another just because the first event (the alleged cause) occurs before the second event (the alleged effect)
hasty generalization fallacy
when someone generalizes too quickly about a group of people, things, or events
begging the question fallacy
a circular argument in which a premise of the argument presumes the truth of the conclusion
false dilemma fallacy
when one presumes that there are fewer options (typically two) than there actually are
burden of proof shifting fallacy
when one presumes that one’s (implausible) claim is justified unless someone else demonstrates otherwise
“level” or “layer” of an argument map
one horizontal row of a carefully drawn argument map
Main Conclusion
the final conclusion of the argument
Main Premise
one among the set of premises directly supporting the main conclusion
Sub-Inference
an inference from a premise to another premise
sub-premise
a premise in a sub-inference
sub-conclusion
a conclusion in a sub-inference
