civil rights test Flashcards
1
Q
What treatment did black Americans face?
A
Across the USA, black Americans faced negative treatment such as racial segregation and discrimination. While discrimination and inequality was widespread in the North, in the South it was often in law. Jim Crow laws enforced segregation in public parks, cinemas, restaurants, schools, universities and on public transport.
2
Q
What were attitudes like in the ‘Deep south’?
A
The deep south is those states in the USA’s South-East with history of slavery and who formed Confederacy during US civil war. Many people in these states help vary traditional and conservative views. These states: Louisiana, Texas, South Carolina, North Carolina, Virginia and Florida.
3
Q
Why do many laws vary between states?
A
US has federal system of government. Means while constitution gives federal government (president, houses of congress and supreme court) some powers, also gives states right to pass many of own laws.
4
Q
What was the civil rights movment?
A
Civil rights moment refers to campaigns for equal rights. Civil rights activist was someone who tried to persude others to do same.
5
Q
Why was it so difficult for black people to receive fair treatment and justice?
A
Institutions including police and law courts in south were full of racist white officials who didn’t support complaints by black people. Police often beat up and murder black people and crimes against black people were rarely investigated. Black people couldn’t sit on juries, largely because wouldn’t be registered to vote, white official made extremely difficult to do.
6
Q
What was the Ku Klux Klan?
A
Group who persecuted Jews, Catholics, communists and any non-white person, especially African Americans. put burning crosses in front of houses, blew up homes and murdered people. Many policemen and judges in south were member or sympathetic to organisation.
7
Q
How did ww2 affect campaign for civil rights?
A
Over million black Americans fought in ww2 in segregated units, or supported war efforts through work at home. After war some white were more sympathetic to civil rights. Moreover, federal government was embarrassed by cold war propaganda that expressed denial of rights to black.
8
Q
How many black Americans could vote in south?
A
Before war around 3%, in 1956 about 20%.
9
Q
Why were so few black Americans registered to vote?
A
White could stop black from voting using variety of official and unofficial methods: employers threatening to sack black employees, white gangs gathered outside registration and voting places, black campaigners and lawyers and activists who went to court to defend right to vote frequently faced beatings or murder. State set own rules for holding elections, unfair voting registration including literacy tests, that would be biased towards white. Had to prove forefathers voted.
10
Q
What was integration?
A
When black andwhite share all facilities and public services.
11
Q
What factors contributed to growth of civil rights movement in 1950s?
A
better education for black-especially in north led to more black professionals, migration meant that many poor black moved north and liberal white moving south, southern towns grew giving black new jobs opportunities in industry, cold war made US government sensitive to international criticism, new ideas disproved idea that some races were genetically inferior-inequality down to education and other social circumstances, ww2 many white worked with black saw integration abroad, TV brought events to homes-racism couldn’t be ignored across USA
12
Q
What nationwide civil rights organisations were there in the 1950s?
A
National association for the advancement of colored people (NAACP est. 1909). congress of racial equality (CORE est.1942). Groups had members in north particularly because had white supporters.
13
Q
What groups campaigned for rights in the south?
A
local groups often church-based. Often more success in south. Some local groups didn’t oppose segregation but wanted equal standards, groups were important in helping develop tactics of non-violent direct action.
14
Q
How did the NAACP campaign for civil rights?
A
Focused on campaigning through courts. Set up legal defence fund (LDF) in 1940 to help black they believed to be wrongly sent to jail. In 1950 LDF started fighting against segregation.
15
Q
What was Plessy v. Ferguson?
A
Decision by US government in 1896 declared segregation allowed under constitution, as was ‘separate but equal’. Allowed for Jim Crow laws.
16
Q
How did the NAACP campaign against Plessy?
A
NAACP used 2 approaches to overcome Plessy. Firstly provided evidence that facilities weren’t equal, secondly, argued that equal facilities weren’t same as equal opportunities because they reinforced racial inferiority.
17
Q
How did CORE campaign against segregation?
A
CORE campaign used non-violent direct action protests such as boycotts, pickets and sit-ins of segregated places e.g. lunch counters, public transport.
18
Q
How did church groups organisations campaign for civil rights?
A
Black churches important centres of most black communities in south. Black clergymen were often community leaders and organiseres, were involved in civil rights movement.
19
Q
Why were black clergymen involved in civil rights?
A
Most paid by church so would not lose job if spoke out against white racism, educated and good public speakers, good negotiators, had own network of contacts in black community. persuade and gain support, sometimes used non-violent direct action, but stressed forgiving opponents.
20
Q
What was the RCNL?
A
The regional council of negro leadership (set up i Mississippi in 1951) was example of organisation that campaigned for black rights within segregation. Led by T.R.M Howard, RCNL campaigned against police brutality and worked for voter registration. It held rallies and speeches.
21
Q
What opposition did the civil rights movement face?
A
faced violence opposition from KKK as well as from white Southern churches who used bible to justify segregation.
22
Q
Name 2 men who were murdered for registering to vote?
A
Reverend George Lee and Lamar Smith.
23
Q
When and where was Emmett Till murdered?
A
14 year old from Chicago was murdered on 18 August 1955 in Mississippi.
24
Q
What happened to Till’s killers?
A
Trial reported across country. Jury cleared defendants after about hour. Defendants later sold story (admitting murder) to magazine for $3,500.
25
What was the impact of Till's murder?
Till's mother, Mamie Bradly, insisted open casket with open viewing of son's battered body in funeral home. Led to huge publicity. NAACP produced pamphlet called M if for Mississippi and Murder, linking cases of Till, Lee and Smith.
26
Who were the Dixiecrats?
Democrats were dominant political party of south. Politicians opposed integration. Most significant opponents were named 'dixiecrats' after southern democrats who had formed own breakaway party rather than support civil rights bill put forward by President Harry Truman in 1948.
27
What was the Brown V. Topeka case?
NAACP lawyers brought several schools desegregation and took them to US supreme court as Brown V. the Board of education of Topeka, Kansas in 1952. 17th May 1954 Supreme court ruled Plessy ruling no longer apply, so 'separate but equal' could no longer be used to justify segregated education. Met with backlash from KKK. Black students and teachers faced threats and hostility in desegregated schools. States found ways to keep segregation. Gained publicity
28
What was impact of brown?
Brown case reversed Plessy, sparking off many more desegregation campaigns, supreme court set no timetable for desegregation but in 1 other supreme court case ruled that desegregation should be carried out by states 'with all deliberate speed'. Vague that gave southern states flexibility.
29
What were other impacts of Brown?
In deep south progress slower. Governors of some states, e.g. Kansas and Mississippi didn't accept desegregation. Senator Harry F. Bryd of Virginia demanded 'massive resistance' by states using tactics such as closing schools that tried to desegregate.
30
What are final impacts of Brown?
White backlash began as can be seen from Southern Manifesto, declaration signed by 11 southern states that claimed desegregation was 'contrary to the Constitution' and would destroy system of pubic education.
31
What were difficulties in desegregating schools?
Especially in deep south, many students, parents and teachers opposed. Black students often faced intimidation and violence by racist mobs. Many black teachers lost jobs or faced trouble from whit students in integrated schools.
32
What happened in Little Rock High school in 1957? (Desegregation started on 3rd September 1957 NAACP arranged for black students to arrive there on 4th September.)
Little Rock, Arkansas, was desegregating Centrel high School in 1957. Due to threats and discrimination only 9 students were willing to go at start of school year. Governor Orval Faubus sent 250 state troopers to 'keep the peace' by stopping black student from entering on first day of school. On second day, Elizabeth Eckford, one of Little Rock Nine students shouted at by mob of white as she walked into school. 24th September Eisenhower sent in federal troops NAACP used courts to challenge governor. More publicity. Some schools shut instead of desegregation.
33
What was the significance of Little Rock?
photograph of Eckford and white mob were in newspapers worldwide with Little Rock Nine becoming famous. Federal government became embarrassed by publicity.
34
What was the federal government embarrassed by publicity?
President Eisenhower, who didn't initially agree with legal enforcing integration, sent 1000 federal troops to enforce Kansas to obey law. Governor Faubus' state troops put under federal control using presidential order. Eisenhower explained his actions on TV saying how states had to respect law. At end of school year, Governor Faubus closed every Little Rock school for next school year in order to avoid integration. Parents forces schools to re-open as integrated in September 1959.
35
What were the WCC?
White Citizens' Councils (WCC) set up after Brown ruling, grew rapidly in late 1950s. Campaigned against desegregation and, like KKK, carried out threats and violent actions against black families and civil rights activists.
36
Were there ways for Southern states to avoid total integration?
Yes, many. States drew up plans for gradual desegregation, a school year at a time; segregated within schools; desegregated only one or two in an area and introduced 'testing' that skewed against black pupils.
37
How did civil rights organisations cope with opposition to desegregation in schools?
NAACP and CORE sent representatives to work with families for children involved in school desegregation. CORE produces a leaflet advising how students should behave during integration and warning them about the hostility they would face.
38
What was the WPC?
Women's political council set up in Montgomery, Alabama, in 1946 to fight discrimination. WPC were asking for changes to issues of bus drivers and seating.
39
Who was secretary of the Montgomery NAACP and leader of its youth council?
Rosa Parks.
40
Why did she become the figurehead of the bus boycott on 1st December 1955?
Parks was respectable, middle-aged, married woman who was well regarded in black community. There was nothing disreputable about her that opponents could use to make her look bad.
41
When was Parks arrested?
1st December 1955
42
What action was taken due to parks' arrest?
WPC called for one-day bus boycott on 5th December. 90% black passengers boycotted bus company.
43
Who was Montgomery's mayor?
Mayor Gayle.
44
What were the aims of the MIA?
The Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) set up at meeting at Holt street baptist church on 5th December 1955. Aimed to support bus boycott and campaign for improvements demanded by WPC (black drivers, fair seating polite drivers).
45
Who was chosen leader of the MIA?
Martin Luther King
46
Why was king chosen?
New to Montgomery so had no friends or enemies among white officials. Moreover, well-educated and respected clergyman who supported non-violent direct action in order to achieve civil rights. Commited to success. Some told would loose job.
47
When did the Montgomery bus boycott take place?
5th December 1955- 20th December 1956.
48
How did authorities respond to boycott?
Many white in Montgomery (from Mayor Gayle, to bus company owners, to KKK and WCC) opposed boycott. WCC membership rose sharply and even Mayor Gayle joined. White officials harassed MIA officials and arrested them on minor charges such as speeding. On 22nd February 89 MIA members, including King, were arrested for disrupting lawful business. Their trial increased publicity although King found guilty and made to pay fine of $500.
49
What system was introduced to help boycott?
MIA met church groups and other organisations to set up car pools, which began on 12th December.
50
Why was the boycott successful?
Overall was combination of organisation, commitment, publicity and leadership of King, Jo Ann Robinson (president of WPC and English teacher who had been writing to Mayor Gayle since 1954), E.D. Nixon (NAACP member helped organise boycott and went on fundraising tours) and Ralph David Abernathy (NAACP member and a clergyman who worked closely with King).
51
Why was the boycott important?
showed black could organise mass resistance, attracted widespread support and publicity, made King well known figure, showed how non-violent direct action could work. Introduced Browser v Gayle argued unconstitutional. 5th June ordered desegregation. Tried to appeal on 17tj December but was rejected. 20th December MIA called off boycott.
52
How did the federal government respond to civil rights movement?
President Eisenhower introduced the 1957 Civil rights act.
53
What was the SCLC?
Southern Christian Leadership Council (SCLC) set up in January 1957 with King as leader. Wanted end to all segregation and campaigned to increase black voter registration by suing non-violent direct action, to stop nationwide protest.
54
What does 'filibuster' mean?
Tactic used by politicians to stop bill being voted on by talking for so long that time limit of debate expires. Used by strom thurmond, a dixiecrat, to stop first vote on 1957 Civil Rights Act.
55
How effective was the 1957 Civil Rights Act?
Was struggle to pass as Dixiecrats opposed bill. When it eventually passed on 9th September 1957, allowed federal government to prosecute states that didn't respect black voting rights. However, trials had to take place in states themselves, and all-white juries were unlikely to do anything
56
What happened in Greensboro, North Carolina?
On 1st February 1960, 4 black college students sat at segregated lunch counter at Woolworth's department store and waited to be served despite being told to leave. Following day 25 more students arrived
57
Who organised the Greensboro sit in?
By 4th February over 300 students working shifts-black and white, male and female. Both CORE and SCLC asked to send people to train students in non-violent protest tactics. Ella BAker from SCLC held meeting of students on 15th April in Raleigh, North Carolina to plan protests across South. Desegregated due to loss of business
58
What organisation was set up on 15th April 1960?
Student Coordination Committee (SNCC-pronounced 'snick').
59
Why was Greensboro sit in significant?
Helped sit-ins to spread across country, some white southerners joined CORE and SNCC, attracted around 500,000 protesters by April 1960, sit-ins were easy for medial to cover (publicity!).
60
What were the 'Freedom Rides'?
By 1961, CORE activists decided to ride buses from North to deep South to test if desegregation was happening. After desegregation ruling in 1957 60
61
What supreme court judgment desegregated state transport?
Browder V. Gayle (1956).
62
What happened on first freedom ride?
On 4th May 1961, 7 black and 6 white 'freedom riders' left Washington DC. Governor of Georgia urged calm but Governor John Patterson of Alabama spoke out against the riders. KKK and WCC members aimed to stop them.
63
What was the reaction by white opponents to freedom riders?
On 15th May 1961, over 100 KKK members surrounded first bus in Anniston, Alabama, slashing tyres and smashing windows. Someone threw firebomb through broken window and held door shut. Passengers escaped just before the petrol tank exploded, although some were beaten up.
64
What happened on the 17th May in reaction to the freedom riders?
SNCC set up own freedom riders form Nashville, Tennessee. No driver would take them further than Birmingham, Alabama. At the bus station they encountered angry mob outside. Governor John Patterson was forced to get them safely to Montgomery by federal government.
65
What did a policeman do in reaction to freedom riders?
fired gun in air to stop mob from attacking riders at Montgomery bus station. Mob (over 1,000) then roamed Montgomery, attacking black and setting boy on fire.
66
What was the impact of the freedom rides?
More people volunteered. Over summer were over 60 freedom riders, over 300 riders went to Jackson, Mississippi's segregated jail, on 1st November 1961 federal government pledged to enforce desegregation if states didn't obey, southern states began to desegregate bus facilities.
67
How had southern universities respond to desegregation?
1961-University of Georgia urged by state Governor and university officials called to accept situation. May 1961-Meredith rejected from University of Mississippi with NAACP challenged this in court. 1962-East Carolina University took its first black student with little violence. 1962-Supreme court ordered University of Mississippi to admit Meredith but university officials and Ross Barnett (state governor and WCC member) physically stopped him from registering.
68
How did federal government respond to the Meredith case?
Meredith returned to register on 30th September 1962 accompanied by 500 officials. President Kennedy called for calm on TV. Despite this, mob of over 3,000 (many armed with little opposition from state police) attacked federal officials and chanted in favour of Governor Ross Barnet. Many federal marshals were badly injured with 28 shot and hundreds of civilians hurt. Kennedy sent in federal troops who stopped the rioting.
69
When did James Meredith register?
On 1st October-federal troops guarded him for the whole year!
70
How did police respond to civil rights protests in Albany, Georgia?
In October 1961, civil rights groups campaigned in Albany, Georgia. State police arrested protesters but used little violence. There was little publicity.
71
Who was the chief of police in Birmingham, Alabama?
'Bull Connor'-tough chief f police who instructed police not to prevent KKK from attacking freedom riders.
72
What nickname was given to Birmingham?
'Bombingham' due to the regular bombing of black churches, homes and business there.
73
How did police respond to civil rights protests in Birmingham, Alabama?
2nd April 1963 civil rights groups (including SNCC and SCLC) began campaign 'C' (for 'confrontation') to end segregation Campaign C included sit-ins, mass meetings, peaceful marches and boycott of shops.
74
What happened on 2nd May?
about 6,000 (mostly students) marched, over 900 were arrested. Next day on 3rd May, more young marched. Jails were full so 'Bull' Connor ordered police to use dogs and firehouses on protesters.
75
What occurred after campaign in Birmingham?
Desegregated agreed in Birmingham, black homes and businesses bombed, 1st significant riot against white violence Kennedy ordered federal troops into Alabama, over 1,000 black students expelled for missing school.
76
What was the march on Washington?
Almost immediately after Birmingham, civil rights leaders led protest march of people from across USA: march on Washington for jobs and freedom on 28th August 1963.
77
How may people took part in march on Washington?
Over 250,000 about 40,000 of them white, took part.At time was largest political gathering in US history.
78
Why was the march on Washington significant?
showed that civil rights was huge national issue, broadcast live on TV in USA and in other countries, King's speech at Lincoln Memorial meant many saw King as leader of movement, Black and white protested together peacefully, showed support from all classes including famous people such as Bob Dylan and Joan Baez.
79
What did the 'freedom summer' in 1964 aim to do?
Was campaign by SNCC and CORE to increase black voter registration in Mississippi in run up to 1964 presidential election.
80
What progress in black voter registration had been made in the early 1960s?
Between 1962-1964, about 700,000 black Americans in South registered. However, in the countryside and deep south number hardly rose at all.
81
What did the 'freedom summer' involve?
Most volunteers were white college students from middle class families who could afford to work with local campaigners on projects in black community. Some helped teach locals how to pass voter registration tests.
82
Was there white opposition to freedom summer?
yes, was often extremely violent. Many white from Mississippi didn't like what they saw as an 'invasion' of liberal white students from other states. Was 10,000 KKK members in Mississippi who burned 37 black churches and 30 homes during the freedom summer.
83
How successful was the Freedom Summer?
If measure its success based on its own aims, then not particularly. Many black people lost their jobs for going to meetings and of the 17,000 black in Mississippi who tried to register to vote, only 1,600 succeeded.
84
What were the Mississippi murders?
Most famous example: 21st June, 3 civil rights campaigners-Michael Schwerner (white CORE worker) Andrew Goodman (black CORE worker) and James Chaney (white volunteer)-were arrested while driving home. Later that evening they were arrested. However, on their way home they were shot by the KKK. Their bodies were found on 4th August.
85
Where is Selma?
Alabama
86
Why was black voter registration so important in Selma?
Selma was in Dallas County where more black people were legally entitled to vote than white people, yet only 1% of them were registered. Selma has the largest WCC in Alabama.
87
What did President Lyndon B. Johnson argue was needed in 1965?
Voting rights act to make sure states allowed black people to register to vote.
88
What happened in Selma on 7th March 1965?
Organised by King, 600 protestors set out to march from Selma to Montgomery. State troopers stopped them just outside Selma, firing tear gas and attacking with clubs and electric prods. This became known as bloody Sunday. All over country, people marched in support.
89
What were the consequences of Selma?
In congress, many spoke against violence an in favour of voter registration, president Johnson used executive order to take over state national guard that subsequently protected marchers from Selma to Montgomery on 21-24th March. Voting rights act of 1965 was passed.
90
What did the civil rights act 1964 do?
Changed law at federal level (whole USA) to ban discrimination in voter registration tests (wasn't effective as Selma shows). Banned discrimination in public places and businesses with branches in more than 1 state, banned job discrimination; set up an Equal opportunities commission to force school desegregation, federal government could stop giving money to states that discriminated.
91
What did the voting rights act of 1965 do?
Changed law at federal level (all USA) to: states could only set voter registration requirements with federal government agreeing it didn't discriminate, Federal officials could take over voter registration in any state where under half if those entitled to vote weren't registered.
92
How did voting rights acts help?
certainly helped by allowing federal government to check that states weren't discriminating and to get involved when they were. By end of 1965, federal registrars had enrolled 79,593 showing some progress. However, change remained slow due to white anger.
93
What were the roles of Presidents Kennedy?
Democrat 1961-63: appointed black to high level jobs e.g. Thurgood Marshall to courts and Robert Weaver in White house, pressed new laws-but assassinated before, used executive order-sent federal troops to Mississippi, personal pressure-argued for protection for freedom riders.
94
What were roles President Johnson?
appointed black to high level jobs-Thurgood Marshall promoted to supreme court; Patricia Harris as US ambassador, new laws-CRA(1964) and VRA (1965). Used executive-took over state national guard in Alabama to protect Selma marches. Personal pressure-pressed Southern politicians to support civil rights bill.
95
How much had changed between 1954 and 1965?
While legal and political gains has been made, many black Americans were increasingly angry at slow rate of progress in many areas. Many black Americans continued to face discrimination in housing, work, education, healthcare and treatment of police. Furthermore, black Americans trying to use legal rights still often faced racist violence and prejudice.
96
Why did Kennedy and Johnson not go to further pushing for civil rights?
Both supported civil rights, but had balance this against political considerations. If went too far on e way worried about losing voters in parts of USA. Also, remember that Democrats had traditionally been dominant party in south throughout late nineteenth century and early twentieth century.
97
What religious organisation was Malcolm X a member of after leaving prison?
The Nation of Islam-1952 the NOI had 500 members, rising to 30,000 in 1963.
98
What did black nationalists believe?
Integration was ineffective in achieving racial equality so that African Americans should aim to create a separate black nation.
99
What did Malcolm X criticism about civil rights movement?
Before 1964, when Malcolm was still within NOI, criticised non-violent direct action, when believed left black defenseless against white violence. Believed even most well-meaning whites couldn't help black achieve equality. According to Malcolm, civil rights laws were pointless if were white in society who viewed black as second-class citizens.
100
How did Malcolm X's views change?
in 1964 after leaving NOI, went on pilgrimage to Mecca and returned with changed views. Was more willing to work with other civil rights organisations.
101
When was Malcolm X assassinated?
In revenge for leaving, NOI assassinated Malcolm X when was making speech in New York on 21st February 1965.
102
What was 'Black power'?
Movement that encouraged black to be proud of heritage and culture, was, suspicious of help from whites and argued against force integration. Used militant language and often refereed to revolution.
103
Where did Black Power movement get most of its support?
From those of living in poor areas (often called ghettos) where civil rights seemed to have very little effect on living standards.
104
Who was Stokely Carmichael?
Was of SNCC set up Lowndes County Freedom Organisation as political party to represent black Americans (symbol was black panther). May 1966 was elected chairman of SNCC and brought more people who believed in black power, especially in North.
105
What happened during March against fear?
James Meredith led march in June 1966 but was shot. When was in hospital, Martin Luther King and Stokely Carmichael led march. Carmichael's speeches were militant and inspired people to go along with his more radical beliefs.
106
What were the consequences of the black power movement for the civil rights organisations?
Both CORE and SNCC became less welcome to white supporters. However, lost significant numbers of black supporters who disagreed with more radical policies.
107
Who gave black power salute at the Mexico Olympics in 1968?
Tommie Smith and John Carlos.
108
Who were black panthers?
one of largest black power groups. Were more willing than most Black power groups to work with white towards their aims. These aims included providing social and economic support to poor black and defending communities against racism in police.
109
How were the BPP set up?
Were set up in California in October 1966 by Huey P Newton and Bobby Seale.
110
What did the BPP do?
Most black panthers saw themselves as police and social workers of black community they: patrolled streets (often armed), worked to stop black city gangs from attacking each other, controlled traffic around schools to protect children, put pressure on local white officials to improve facilities, ran courses on black history and citizens' rights, carried tape recorders to record police harassment, organised free medical clinics and free clothing for poor, ran breakfast club program (BCP) to provide breakfast to poor black children.
111
What did the BCP achieve?
While black panthers helped some local communities improve living standards, were also frequently involved in crime to pay for schemes. Some of money was stolen from banks and black businesses. BBP often accused of provoking police rather than defending the community.
112
How many riots were there between 1964 and 1968?
329 major riots in 257 US cities.
113
What were some notable riots?
first large riot was in New York city in July 1964 (2 weeks after CRA was passed) which began when a policeman shot a young black man. Reflected wider anger at ghetto conditions and at violent down south, major riot was in Watts district of Los Angeles in August 1965 (Watts riots) was triggered by arrest of young black man. Were summer riots every year in different cities, mainly in north (worst Chicago and Cleveland in 1966 and Detroit 1967).
114
Why were there riots?
individual arrests and shootings are sparks of wider social and economic problems. Police discrimination:(in 30 months before Watts riots, police shot 65 black-27 in back and 25 unarmed), discrimination by white officials-took from of not responding to complaints in mostly black neighborhoods,twice as likely to be unemployed-mostly unskilled, low-paid jobs. More than twice as likely to be poor-mostly white landlords crowed people into badly repaired housing, poor quality education and life chances.
115
Who harmed in the riots?
White-run stores that discriminated and white-owned property was mostly targeted. 80% of rioters were young black men. More black people died than white, often shot by police or troops.
116
What was the impact of the riots?
Martin Luther King visited Watts in LA during riots and said that SCLC must campaign in north. president Johnson was convinced of need to put more money into improving the ghettos, some riots, such as in Watts, led to a rise in membership of black power groups.
117
What was president Johnson's reaction to the riots?
saw riots as consequence of political and economic failures. In July 1967 set up enquiry into riots. In 1968 Kerner Report said: ghetto conditions were important case, failure of white officials to fix problems that black community pointed out, police had made riots worse by using too much violence, more federal money needed for poor areas, medial had exaggerated riots.
118
What was King's reaction?
Shocked by what he say in Watts in 1965 worked more closely with organisations in north, 1966 accepted an invitation by coordination council of community organisations in Chicago (CCCO) to join non-violent campaign for fairer housing, known as Chicago Campaign.
119
Was King's Chicago campaign successful?
Some success can't be considered campaign on same level as Montgomery and Selma. From January 1966 King called meetings and arranged demonstrations, but support limited by fact that many of Chicago's white politicians didn't support campaign, SCLC found it hard to connect to ghetto gangs, King's message of peaceful non-violence didn't work as well as it had in southern church groups, Chicago's mayor Richard Daley used words not weapons. In negotiations with King he sounded reasonable but then did nothing,publicity and public sympathy was much less supportive as planned peaceful marches in July coincide with outbreak of a violent riot.
120
How did the Chicago campaign end?
Despite riots, Mayor Daley agreed to meeting with Chicago freedom movement which led to agreement on fairer housing. King and many of SCLC then left Chicago. Once the SCLC left, Mayor Daley mostly ignored agreement.
121
When was Martin Luther King assassinated?
King was shot on 4th April 1968 in Memphis, Tennessee
122
What was the short term impact of King's death?
In weeks after riots in 172 towns and cities across USA, between 4th and 9th April (King's funeral), 32 black were dead, 3,500 injured and 27,000 arrested, SCLC leaders and many activists argued about campaigners, 1968 civil rights act was quickly passed, which included more protections on housing and federal protection of civil rights workers as well as harsher punishments for rioting, (Title VIII of this act is commonly referred to as the fair housing act of 1968).
123
What was the longer-term impact of King's death?
National civil rights groups lost membership, funding and support from white, although this trend had began from around 1965 due to CRA, VRA and negative publicity of riots. Many black Americans became more radical-in 1969 the SNCC changed the 'N' in its from 'non-violent' to 'national'.
124
What did the civil rights campaign focus on between 1969-1975?
Protests split many ways. BPP campaigned on social and economic issues, but Vietnam war increasingly dominated public debate. Black Americans were particularly angry that their demands for civil rights weren't being met, and yet they were expected to fight.
125
What did President Richard Nixon do for civil rights?
republican (1969-74) elected largely on pledge to begin withdrawing troops from Vietnam while also winning conflict. Carefully spoke in favour of civil rights, arguing that his reforms would prevent riots. Actions included: Tax cuts for white-owned businesses that set up branches in black neighborhoods, pressed for 'affirmative action'-deliberately choosing a black person for a job over a white person in order to increase representation, made sure were more black officials in white house-James Farmer, who had a CORE official, was given high-level job in department if Health, Welfare and Education.
126
Had there been progress by 1975?
Fight for equality for Black Americans is far from won even today! However, by 1975 it's clear progress has been made in several aeras.
Fight for civil rights expanded somewhat to include other ethnic minority groups. E.g. voting rights act was amended in 1975 to include Hispanic, Native Americans and other races. Other victories had been won in that racist language during election campaigns declined; between 1964-70 number for southern black officials had increased from fewer than 25 to over 700; Andrew Young who had been elected member of SCLC was elected to congress in 1972 and a year later, Maynard Jackson became Atlanta's first African-American mayor
Despite this economic inequality didn't get better through the 1970s and desegregation didn't bring about improvements in black people's living standards.
127
What was the NAACP and CORE?
NAACP national association for the advancement of colored people. Set up in 1909. Using courts. Defended black unfairly treated of crimes. Focused on overturning 'seperate but equal'. CORE congress of racial equality set up in 1942 smaller membership. Non-violent direct action. Mostly in North. In early years most members were white and middle class.
128
Who was James Meredith?
Applied to univzrsury of Mississippi for second time. NAACP had successfull court case supreme court ordered them to admit him. University ignored it. 30th September escorted by federal troops. 3000 rioters. Kennedy called for peace. We're deaths and injuries.
129
What was the Lerner report 1968?
Riots consequence of poor living standards in ghettos band failure to respond to black complaints. Be listened to and properly involved in resolving problems. Policy methods change because black communities don't trust police. Police in riots made it worse. Money provided for improved living conditions and opportunities hasn't been spent on planned improvements, just on more police. Media exaggerated riots.
