Civil Rights in 60s Flashcards
Freedom Rides
In 1946, the supreme court desegregated interstate transport. In 1961, CORE planned the freedom rides to prove the ruling wasn’t being followed.
CORE designed the freedom rides to be compliant with the supreme court verdict on interstate travel, and to incite a violent response from racists, forcing the government to respond.
The first freedom rides left in May 1961 and faced little issue until they reached Anniston. On the 14 of May the riders were met by an angry mob led by a KKK leader. Their bus was damaged but police arrived and escorted the bus out of the city, then left leaving the bus to the mob that followed.
The mob attempted to enter the bus, and someone threw a firebomb inside, the passengers escaped and a highway patrol escort took them away preventing future attacks.
Later, CORE planned other freedom rides, and they were also attacked by KKK members. More and more people offered to be freedom rides, and there were 60 freedom rides.
The KKKs response through the Anniston Firebombing made international headlines, northerners were shocked by the violence and civil rights activists gained credibility. The media also gave other countries an opportunity to denounce racism in America pushing the government to act.
Effects:
- Brought attention to racism in the deep south, as the brutal violence against them made the news not only in the US but abroad, which put pressure on the government, The government threatened to send marshals if the states did not obey the ruling, which was enough for them to begin the change.
- Caused civil rights groups to change tactics, as it shown that the supreme court alone could not force change, as their rulings weren’t always followed. This led groups like SNCC to adopt new strategies to enforce change, such as the sit ins
James Meredith and the Meredith Case
The Mississipi university of Ole Miss did not integrate well, when an African American student, James Meredith, applied for the school, he was rejected. James went to the NAACP, who helped him take the case to court, which ordered the university to admit him.
The school refused, but president Kennedy intervened, that same night racists rioted to stop Meredith joining, Kennedy sent hundreds of officers to escort Meredith. Officials were attacked, riots followed, 2 civilians died and several were injured.
On the 1rst of October, Meredith began learning at the university, and he was escorted by officers until he graduated.
Effects:
- The Meredith Case forced president Kennedy to act, showing that the government would give their support to black students. Because of this, few schools later on attempted to stop black students from admitting, but black students still faced difficulties due to discrimination
- Increased media awareness
Sit-Ins
In 1960, four black students sat at the whites only lunch counter in a department store in Greensboro waiting to be served. They were asked to leave but they refused, and the next few day they returned with more students, eventually the movement spread to other towns and eventually the whole south, with 17,000 people taking part.
Protesters were harassed, spat at, and even attacked and arrested, so the students began a new tactic, jail not bail, with the goal being filling up the jail cells so that they couldn’t arrest more people. These protests drew massive media attention, especially because the protestors were nonviolent and did not retaliate.
Activists from other civil rights organisations decided to organise boycotts of these companies, as well as joining in on the sit ins.
The sit ins were very successful. The businesses targeted were attacked in two ways. Firstly they sold less meals because of the seats occupied, and they sold less goods because of the boycotts. Most of these shops ended up desegregating their lunch counters.
Effects:
- Sit ins attracted a great deal of media attention, as they were much more visible than boycotts, and they attracted sympathy with images of African American youths getting attacked and arrested. Even president Eisenhower showed his concern. Sit ins were the first truly mass protests with lots of people over a massive area, and the first protests to include large numbers of white people.
- The sit ins represented a change in tactics, as they were still nonviolent but they were much more confrontational, allowing protestors to target specific buildings and generate massive media attention.
Birmingham Peace March
Led by SNCC and SCLC, the protestors aimed to end segregation in Birmingham. Birmingham was chosen because it segregation was very entrenched, and a campaign here would generate much publicity.
The first marches started in 1963, along with other demonstrations, the police arrested many people including MLK, and SNCC trained young children to join as protestors. In the 2nd of May the first children’s marches began, with children as young as 6. People were shocked that children were used as protesters but even more shocked by how they were treated.
On the 3rd of may during a protest the police let out dogs to attack the protestors and blasted them with high pressure hoses. The footage of young people attacked by dogs and hoses were shown around the world. President Kennedy sent a negotiator to Birmingham, but as that was happening more violence was sparked, eventually Kennedy sent in federal troops, eventually the major agreed to some desegregation, however many facilities remained desegregated yet violence remained.
Effects:
- Caused some desegregation in Birmingham
- Inspired further riots in other cities across the south
- Pushed the government to further placate civil rights activists by releasing the 1964 civil rights act
Washington March for Peace and Jobs
In Aug 63, over 250,000 black and white people took part in the March for Peace of Jobs. These protestors wanted to show their support for the new civil rights bill being debated. These protestors were peaceful, there were musical performances, speeches, and mass prayers broadcast to the world.
This is where MLK delivered his “I have a dream” speech. This speech became famous and it cemented him as the leader of the civil rights movement. In 1964 he received the Nobel Peace Prize.
Effects:
- One of the largest civil rights protests ever organised, which led to great media publicity, as well as the presence of many celebrities such as Bob Dylan
- Put pressure on politicians as the civil rights bill was being debated
- Cemented MLK as the leader of the movement, he was an eloquent speaker and could instill hope into the black community
Freedom Summer
Civil rights groups including NAACP, CORE, SNCC organised freedom summer, the campaign was aimed at increasing voting registration among blacks, focused on Mississipi because of its low voter registration. They created a new political party, the Mississipi Freedom Democratic Party, and they attempted to help blacks pass voter registration tests. However volunteers sent by NAACP were being attacked by the KKK, and some were even murdered.
On June 1964, Michael Schnerner, Andrew Goodman and James Chaney were arrested for traffic offenses. The police arrested them, and when they were released they weren’t seen again until their bodies were discovered. Scherner and Goodman were shot and Chaney was beaten to death. Their deaths attracted a great deal of media attention and controversy. Some claimed the deaths only attracted so much attention because Scherner and Goodman were white, and the deaths caused some to seek more radical action.
Effects:
- Many saw Freedom Summer as a failure as there was a limited increase in voter registration. People were physically attacked or threatened into not voting.
- But the publicity generated did increase support and brought the issue into international attention.
Selma and Voting Rights
Selma was the main city in Dallas county, Alabama, and had very poor voter registration. Martin Luther and the SCLC campaigned there, leading to violent confrontations with the police. The lack of success caused the SCLC to change tactics. On the 7th of March, protests left Selma heading for Montegomery, where they were stopped by police and state troops who used clubs, tear gas and horses. Footage of police attacking blacks were broadcast.
The second march was organised but it was called off by MLK as he did not want confrontation with the police. Lyndon B Johnson used the publicity from the first march to generate support for a new voting rights bill. Meanwhile protesters across the US set out to show support, in March the bill was submitted, the Alabama National Guard was brought under federal control and escorted the protestors to Montegomery.
Effects:
- Split in the civil rights movement, many protestors including SNCC wanted to confront the police, causing a split and more militant protests in future
- Passing of the voting rights act
Civil Rights Act of 64
With the death of Kennedy, Lyndon B Johnson used the shock from his death to bully congressmen into passing the bill. The act ends legal segregation and discrimination in public places, voters registration had to be fair, discrimination in jobs and employment were outlawed, the equal opportunities commission was created to investigate discrimination in employment, and the feds could take away funding from programs which discriminated based on race.
Effects:
- Ended legal discrimination, but discrimination continued despite the law, especially in the deep south.
- Was a compromise, many southerners were angry and civil rights activists wanted the bill to go further.
- Increased voter registration
Voting Acts Right
The events of freedom summer and Selma highlighted issues with black voter registration. The civil rights act attempted to solve this but it didn’t go far enough, leading to the voting rights act passing in 65. It created one fair test for voting registration everywhere, states could not set their own voting qualifications, appointed federal examiners were to investigate voting registration.
Effects:
- Dramatic increase in African American voter registration, voter registration doubled and even tripled in some states, with it increasing 10fold in Mississipi
Voting Acts Right
The events of freedom summer and Selma highlighted issues with black voter registration. The civil rights act attempted to solve this but it didn’t go far enough, leading to the voting rights act passing in 65. It created one fair test for voting registration everywhere, states could not set their own voting qualifications, appointed federal examiners were to investigate voting registration.
Effects:
- Dramatic increase in African American voter registration, voter registration doubled and even tripled in some states, with it increasing 10fold in Mississipi, meaning that blacks could elect their own representetives at a local, state and national level, and that politicians had to take into account the black vote
- Increased hope among the black community for change
Nation of Islam and the Work of Malcolm X
From 1966, some groups argued for black nationalism, which involved creating a black state and living seperate from other races. One black nationalist group was the Nation of Islam, set up in 1930, which had Muslim beliefs and claimed that integration would not bring an end to discrimination. It began as a small group of 500 but in ten years it grown to 40 thousand thanks to the work of Malcolm X was very critical of the civil rights movement and leaders like MLK. He thought not retaliating to black violence was foolish and that violence was justified as a means of achieving liberation.
Many civil rights activists saw him as dangerous, but he gained support because he seemed in touch with black people’s social and financial problems. In 1964, Malcolm X left the Nation of Islam, his views had changed on black nationalism and he created the organisation for Afro-American Unity. It promoted close links with people with Africa and this organisation would work with other civil rights group.
In 1965 he was assassinated. Malcolm X’s influence continued long after his death, his beliefs of black pride, self defense and a rejection of the civil rights movement inspired many other radical groups such as the Black Panthers. However he also had an effect on all civil rights movement by highlighting the economic problems faced by many black people.
Effects:
- Increased radicalism in the civil rights movement. Many black youths were dissatisfied with MLKs slow progress and thus were attracted to Malcolm X’s more radical views. He increased membership to the Nation of Islam 10fold and his belief in self defense inspired many groups
- Created divide in civil rights group. He was very critical of MLK and referred to the March on Washington as a farce. This ultimately reduced the unity in the civil rights movemnt. His strong words scared many moderates and turned white people away from the civil rights movement
Black Power and Stokely Carmichael
Despite the changes in law, blacks across the US still faced prevalant discrimination. Carmichael took a very different stance on MLK to deal with the issue. His speeches were more militant, he called for the people to demand black power. Carmichael like many was frustrated by MLKs slow progress. He wanted people to reject white help, embrace black culture and take a more radicalised approach. He said nonviolence was a fools game and people should defend themselves. This marked a turning point as the group divided in their ideas and approach.
Black Power grew because many African Americans were frustrated by slow progress, poor economic conditions for most black families and worsening situations in the ghettos. Also, black power supported African Americans embracing their race, culture and heritage, which was attractive for many.
In 1968 the Olympics were held. During the medals ceremony 2 of the US athletes raised a fist in solidarity with the black power movement. They also wore black socks without feet to highlight the poverty of the black community. Their demonstration inspired many black youths to join black power groups, and brought global attention to the black power movement. Black power terrified white Americans. Some blamed black power for the race riots while others held the movement responsible for the increase of police actions against civil rights activists. However the movement had a positive impact on many. It led to more blacks taking pride in their culture and heritage, raising the self confidence of many black people. Black power brought awareness to social and economic problems and influenced the civil rights movement greatly post 1965.
Black Panthers
The Black Panthers were the most well known black power group and possibly the most feared. The black panthers had a 10 point plan which listed their demands to help black people. Their most famous act was patrolling the pigs, where black panthers would patrol police officers to prevent abuse of African Americans. Many blacks in the ghettos saw them as more effective then the actual police force. They were seen as a great threat by the gov due to their socialist beliefs. The black panther groups were paticurlarily successful in their schemes to improve life in ghettos. They organized medical clinics for free healthcare, ran breakfast clubs, gave out free shoes, ran classes on black history and encouraged cooperation between gangs reducing violence. They sometimes did resort to theft to fund their campaigns.
Effects:
- Helped African American community; Breakfast clubs, patrolling the pigs, free healthcare
- Threatened government because of their socialist beliefs and their use of guns
Black Panthers
The Black Panthers were the most well known black power group and possibly the most feared. The black panthers had a 10 point plan which listed their demands to help black people. Their most famous act was patrolling the pigs, where black panthers would patrol police officers to prevent abuse of African Americans. Many blacks in the ghettos saw them as more effective then the actual police force. They were seen as a great threat by the gov due to their socialist beliefs. The black panther groups were paticurlarily successful in their schemes to improve life in ghettos. They organized medical clinics for free healthcare, ran breakfast clubs, gave out free shoes, ran classes on black history and encouraged cooperation between gangs reducing violence. They sometimes did resort to theft to fund their campaigns.
Effects:
- Helped African American community; Breakfast clubs, patrolling the pigs, free healthcare
- Threatened government because of their socialist beliefs and their use of guns
