citations to cite

Question 1

What did Tinbergen —- (the creator of the ultimate / proximate causes) do to the wolf-bee? Wa this testing a proximate or an ultimate hypothesis?

Answer 1

1949 Baffled it by moving pinecones away from it’s nest hole when it was out hunting to see if it did indeed circle to identify landmarks before it left home. Tested an PROXIMATE hypothesis.

Question 2

What was Tinbergen 19– doing with all those eggshells? Was this testing an ultimate or a proximate hypothesis?

Answer 2

1962. Tested an ULTIMATE hypothesis by seeing that gulls did indeed move eggshells further away from their nests to reduce chick mortality from crows finding their nests.
      https://brill.com/view/journals/beh/19/1-2/article-p74_3.xml

Question 3

What was the experimental design for Vallin et al. 2005 study on Peacock butterflies.

Answer 3

One had no eye spots and sound.
One had eyespots and no sound
One had both
One had both and control paint around the spots
One had niether
One had both and control chunks taken out of the wings.

Question 4

What were the findings of -—– et al. —- studies on Peacock Butterflies.

Answer 4

Vallin et al. 2005: Eyespots were what mattered to reduce bluetit predation. Hissing did not matter for bluetits much at all. Hissing may be for bats

Question 5

How did Young & Clutton Brock 2006 add to —- et al. 2014 study on meerkats

Answer 5

Bell
Showed that dominant female litters less likely to survive is subordinate females have pups at the same time, thus infanticide made sense

Question 6

Young and Clutton-Brock 2006 showed that if s—– AND d—— pregnant, litter survival went down even further to 10%

Answer 6

subordinate, dominant

Question 7

What did Tinbergen observes about Passerine birds (bluetits and that) and search images?

Answer 7

Tinbergen observed that when a new type of caterpillar appeared in woodlands, birds rarely brought it back to nest. When a couple had been found, many more collected then.
Thus hypothesised the birds were building up a search image.

Question 8

K— v– F—- investigated the waggle dance.
The r—– dance is done if food <50m
The f—–of e—– dance is done if food is >50m.
D—— obtained by angle of bee on vertical cones transposed to the sun.
D—– is obtained on how long it takes to perform dance

Answer 8

Karl Von Frisch, Round, Figure of eight, Direction, Distance

Question 9

Karl Von Frisch saw how bees communicate distance by creating irregularly p—– tunnels to confuse bees. These bees thought the distance was l—— than it actually was so did significantly less r—- dances. Thus we know bees use visual cues to determine distance. What mechanism did bees do this by\?

Answer 9

patterned, longer, round.

Showed that it was a NEUROMECHANISM in bees which was used to infer distance

Question 10

Why don’t groups of female lions and other hunting carnivores disband in times of food scarcity, even though their strategy stops being useful then? Cr— & Cr— —- studied this on what species. Get the date right.

Answer 10

Creel & Creel 1995 hypothesised that it may REDUCE energy cost from chasing prey etc. African wild dogs DFO show that net energy gain INCREASED in larger packs. Hunting success increased with pack size and chase distance decreased. HOWEVER per capita food intake was best at a modal pack size

Question 11

Special reading 2: B— et al. 20–, Suppressing subordinate reproduction provides benefits to dominants in cooperative societies of meerkats.
What did they do to maje this study?
What did they find?

Answer 11

Bell et al. 2014
They used contraceptive injections to stop subordinated reproducing
Weight and health of dominant meerkats pups then shown to significantly increase.
Showed that doms benefitted when they were aggresive to subs to stop them reproducing.
Foraging more effective & aggression lower when subs had no pups.
Showed this behaviour was indeed an adaptive strat for the dominant meerkats.

Question 12

Special Reading 3: -— et al. ––. About sand goby and infanticide.
1. When do male sand gobies commit infanticide?
2. Why do they?
3. What does this show?

Answer 12

Deal et al. 2017
1. Signifcantly more likely to when shown more ‘predator cues’. Reduced offspring investment & effort attracting mate.
2. When predators around, prioritise own survival thus may engage in filial cannibalism
3. Shows role of dangerous and uncertain environments in eliciting different levels of paternal investment in this species.

Question 13

J— M—— S—- introduced Pairwise Contests and he ALSO introduced the idea of o—– f—- theory, in which animals should ba;ance the benefits (energy) of getting a resource with the cost (time & effort) of adquiring it

Answer 13

optimal foraging theory

Question 14

Who studied north western crows?

Answer 14

Zach 1979
North-Western crows drop optimally sized whelks from the optimal height to get food.

Question 15

B—– 1978. A classic study. What 3 constraints do moose need to balance?

Answer 15

Belovsky 1978
Energy, rumen volume and sodium from food.
- Aquatic veg has high sodium and little energy.
- Trees have the opposite.
Thus moose eat both.

Question 16

K—– —- trained starlings to feed at different stations, showing that load size did / did not increase with distance from nest, in line with MVTs

Answer 16

Kacelnik 1984: DID increase

Question 17

In great tits (Cowie 19–) it was found that travel cost was ——- than the cost of being in that patch, thus not meeting the assumption of MVTs that travel cost=patch cost.

Answer 17

Cowie 1977: greater. Birds sat down to eat.

Question 18

Caro 1986 - what did they study?

Answer 18

Less stotters chased than none-stotters. Stotters never killed. Studied Thompson’s Gazelle

Question 19

What did the Albo et al. 2— paper study? What did the experiment control for?

Answer 19

2013
Female Cryptic Choice in Nursery Web Spiders.
Found that better nuptial gifts increased
1. Mating
2. Sperm storage by females
Nuptial gifts also got higher egg-hatchy success, even under equal copulation length.
Nuptial gift under positive selection by females.
Experiment controlled for copulation length & made it the same for with / without nuptial gifts.
Specimens frozen post-mating and studied

Question 20

What did Pryke et al. —- study? Which bird? Why?

Answer 20

2017
The Gouldian Finch
It has 3 colour morphs (red.black and gold) and sexes are more compatible with the same colour morph as them
They participate in extra-pair copulation, which the females allow more when male is same colour.
Female can manipulate sperm in tract, thus more eggs fertilized from compatible males.
Shows role of CFC and benefits of extra-pair copulations to females too

Question 21

Sh—– et al. 20–:
Compares bees feeding in closeby areas on 2 different food sources. What are the food sources?
What are the pros and cons of each food source?

Answer 21

Shakleton et al. 2016 Two food sources in an orchard were fruit juices from guava and nectar
- Fruit juice caused more weight gain and was less energetically expensive to consume, but nectar had a higher sugar concentration. Thus bees spent more time foraging and collecting nectar even though fruit juice was more abundant, supporting OTT

Question 22

——- et al. 20–:
Compares bees feeding in closeby areas on 2 different food sources.
Which food source did they prefer?
How does this support optimal foraging theory?

Answer 22

Shackleton et al. 2016
- Bees preferred nectar despite it being less abundant than fruit juice. Fruit juice was more accessible so was still chosen to a degree.
- Supports optimal foraging as the bees are prepared to spend more time and effort obtaining nectar as it is a HIGHER QUALITY food source for them.

Question 23

—– et al. 20–.
- Paper on optic flow cues on honeybee flight.
- What are optic flow cues?
- In what conditions do bees use them more?

Answer 23

Baird et al.2021
- Visual patterns which change as bees moves
- Tested bees with varying windspeeds in wind tunnel and varying optic flow cues
- Bees rely on them more in windy conditions to go at the right speed & direction, and when flying AGAINST as oppossed to WITH the wind

Question 24

Explain the —— et al. —- study on Drongos

Answer 24

Flower et al. 2014
Studied fork-tailed Drongos, an intelligent species of African bird.
Species associated with them respond to their alarm calls. The Drongo uses this to their advantage by mimicking OTHER species alarm calls and conning them away from food.
Species reduce their response to alarm calls when they are repeated.
Drongos give true AND false alarm calls.
They vary the type of call that they give so they can fool species for longer and they keep responding with fear.
Likelihood that food was stolen was approximately 4 times higher when call was varied.
This is how they evade the frequency-dependent constraints of normal deceptive communication.

Question 25

Who conducted the study titled ‘Reciprocal signalling in honeyguide-human mutualism’ What did it show?

Answer 25

Spottiswodde et al. 2016
Greater honeyguides lead human honey-hunters to wild bees nest. From this act of mutualism they get to eat honeycomb when humans have cracked the nest open. Vocalisations by human groups found to have increased chances of honeyguide appearing, compared to other control sounds.

Question 26

What did Gr— et al. —- study about birds ? What didthey find.

Answer 26

Green et al. 2016 studied inclusive fitness theory amongst various species of cooperatively feeding birds using Hamilton’s rule (b*r>C). Found that contributions to cooperative brood care did indeed increase with man relatedness.
HOWEVER kin-selected gains may not have been only benefits, and other direct-fitness benefits like increased survivorship & inheritance of breeding territory are not to be ruled out.

Question 27

Who did the paper titled ‘Helping effort increases with relatedness in bell miners, but ‘unrelated’ helpers of both sexes still provide substantial care’.
Why may unrelated birds stil help?

Answer 27

Wright et al. 2009.
Relatives & non relative members of both sexes of Bell Miner Bird (even ratio) remain to help raise brood, although related birds more likely to help.
Unrelated birds may help due to kin selection at a COLONY level, by increasing their chnaces of passing on genes n increasing the survival of the group as a whole.